Chlorination at Treatment Plant and Drinking Water Quality: A Case Study of Different Sectors of Islamabad, Pakistan

详细信息    查看全文

• 作者：Sara Qaiser (1)
  Imran Hashmi (1)
  Habib Nasir (2)
  
• 关键词：Chlorination ; Drinking water ; E. coli ; Free residual chlorine ; Trihalomethanes ; Water treatment plant
• 刊名：Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering
• 出版年：2014
• 出版时间：July 2014
• 年：2014
• 卷：39
• 期：7
• 页码：5665-5675
• 全文大小：1,010 KB
• 参考文献：1. Government of Pakistan:Clean Drinking Water Initiative. Accessed on March 8, 2010 (2007)
  2. Nelson, K.E.; Williams, C.M.; Graham, N.M.H. (eds.): Infectious diseases epidemiology. Theory and practice. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg (2001)
  3. Ford T.E.: Microbiological safety of drinking water: United States and global perspective. Environ. Health Perspect. 107, 191-06 (1999)
  4. Szewzyk U., Szewzyk R., Manz W., Schleifer K.H.: Microbiological safety of drinking water. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54, 81-27 (2000) CrossRef
  5. Hashmi I., Sara Q., Shaukat F.: Microbiological quality of drinking water in urban communities, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Desalin. Water Treat. 41, 240-48 (2012) CrossRef
  6. Heraud J., Kiene L., Detay M., Levi Y.: Optimized modelling of chlorine residual in a drinking water distribution system with a combination of on-line sensors. J. Water SRT Aqua. 46, 59-0 (1997)
  7. Piriou P., Levi J., Heraud J., Kiene L.: New tools and applications in modelling and monitoring water quality in drinking water distribution system. Water Supply. 15, 119-35 (1997)
  8. WHO: Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Surveillance and control of community supplies, vol. 3. World Health Organization, Geneva (1997)
  9. LeChevallier, M.W., Schulz, W., Lee, R.G.: Bacterial nutrients in drinking water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57, 857-2 (1991)
  10. Geldreich, E.E.: Microbial quality of water supply in distribution systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton (1996)
  11. APHA: American Public Health Association.Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Washington (2005)
  12. Collins,C.H.; Lyne,P.M.: Microbiological methods. Butterworth & Co Publishers Ltd., London (1985)
  13. US-EPA.: Determination of chlorination disinfection byproducts and chlorinated solvents in drinking water by liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography with electron-capture detection. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, Method 551 (1990)
  14. US-EPA.: Determination of haloacetic acids in drinking water by liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography with electron-capture detection. National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, Method 552.2 (1995)
  15. Muhammad S.A.F., Langrish T., Tang P., Adi H., Chan H., Kazarian S.G., Dehghani F.: A novel method for the production of crystalline micronised particles. Int. J. Pharm. 388, 114-22 (2010) CrossRef
  16. Ghaffar S., Hashmi I., Awan M.I., Nasir H., Amjad H.: Determination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in potable water using solid phase micro extraction-gas chromatography (SPME-GC). Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 37, 1255-262 (2012) CrossRef
  17. Amjad H., Hashmi I., Muhammad S.R., Awan M. I., Ghaffar S., Khan Z.: Cancer and non-cancer risk assessment of trihalomethanes in urban drinking water supplies of Pakistan. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 91, 25-1 (2013) CrossRef
  18. European Commission Directorate General Health and Consumer Protection (ECDGHCP).: Guidance document on residue analytical methods. pp. 10. http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/protection/resources/guide_doc_825-00_rev7_en.pdfS (accessed 04.01.13) (2010)
  19. Lou J.C., Han J.Y.: Assessing water quality of drinking water distribution system in the South Taiwan. Environ. Monit. Assess. 134, 343-54 (2007) CrossRef
  20. Bailey I.W., Thompson P.: Monitoring water quality after disinfection. Water Supply. 13, 35-8 (1995)
  21. Dufour, A.; Snozzi, M.; Koster, W.; Bartran, J.; Ronchi, E.; Fewtrell, L.: Assessing microbiological safety of drinking water. Improving approaches and methods, WHO-OECD, vol. 167. IWA publishing, London (2003)
  22. Drinking water health criteria document for chloramines, health and ecological criteria division. Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, EPA, ECAO-CIN-D002. http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/water/chloramine/dwchloramine.pdf (1994)
  23. Symons J.M., Krasner S.W., Simms L.A., Sclimenti M.: Measurement of THM and precursor concentrations revisited: the effect of bromide ion. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 85, 51-2 (1993)
  24. USEPA: EPA protocol for the review of existing national primary drinking water regulations. Office of Water, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (4607M), Standard and Risk Management Division, EPA 815-R-03-002. http://www.epa.gov/safewater (2003)
  25. Kostopoulou M.N., Golfinopoulos S.K., Nikolaou A.D., Xilourgidis N.K., Lekkas T.D.: Volatile organic compounds in the surface waters of Northern Greece. Chemosphere. 40, 527-32 (2000) CrossRef
  26. Hsu C.H., Jeng W.L., Chang R.M., Chien L.C., Han B.C.: Estimation of potential lifetime cancer risks for trihalomethanes from consuming chlorinated drinking water in Taiwan. Environ. Res. A. 85, 77-2 (2001) CrossRef
  27. Golfinopoulos S.K.: The occurrence of trihalomethanes in the drinking water in Greece. Chemosphere 41, 1761-767 (2000) CrossRef
  28. Genthe, B.; Seager, J.: The effect of water supply, handling and usage on water quality in relation to health indices in developing communities. WRC report no. 562/1/96. Water research commission. Pretoria, South Africa (1996)
  29. Zamxaka, M.; Pironcheva, G.; Muyima, N.Y.O.: Microbiological and physio-chemical assessment of the quality of domestic water sources in selected rural communities of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Water SA 30, 333-40 (2004)
  30. Mohamed H.I., Abozeid G.: Dynamic simulation of pressure head and chlorine concentration in the City of Asyut water supply network in abnormal operating conditions. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 36, 173-84 (2011) CrossRef
  31. Imtiaz, J.; Hashmi, I.; Qazi, I.A.; Arshad, M.: Development of PCR protocol for detection of Escherichia coli in drinking water. In: 11th International Conference on Modelling, Monitoring and Management of Water Pollution. 10-2 July. New Forest, UK (2012)
  32. Maraj, S.; Rodda, N.; Jackson, S.; Buckley, C.; Macleod, N.: Microbial deterioration of stored water for users supplied by stand-pipes and ground tanks in a peri-urban community. Water SA. 32, 693- (2009)
  33. Egorov, A.; Ford, T.; Tereschenko, A.; Drizhd, N.; Segedevich, I.; Fourman, V.: Deterioration of drinking water quality in the distribution system and gastrointestinal morbidity in a Russian city. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 12, 221-33 (2002)
  34. WHO: Guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organization, pp. 81- (2003)
  35. LeChevallier, M.W.; Seidler, R.J.; Evans T.M.: Enumeration and characterization of standard plate count bacteria in chlorinated and raw water supplies. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 40, 922-30 (1980)
  36. EPA. Drinking water criteria document for turbidity: Drinking Water Research Division. Office of Research and Development. Washington, DC (1984)
  37. Kent J.P., Greenspan J.R., Herndon J.L.: Epidemic giardiasis caused by a contaminated public water supply. Am. J. Public Health. 78, 139-43 (1988) CrossRef
  38. LeChevallier, M.W., Evans, T.M., Seidler, R.J.: Effect of turbidity on chlorination efficiency and bacterial persistence in drinking water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42, 159-7 (1981)
  39. Sadeghi G.H., Mohammadian M., Nourani M., Peyda M., Eslami A.: Microbiological quality assessment of rural drinking water supplies in Iran. J. Agric. Soc. Sci. 3, 31-3 (2007)
  40. Farooq, S.; Hashmi, I.; Qazi, I.A.; Qaiser, S.; Rasheed, S.: Monitoring of coliform and chlorine residual in water distribution network of Rawalpindi. Environ. Monit. Assess. 140, 1- (2008)
  
• 作者单位：Sara Qaiser (1)
  Imran Hashmi (1)
  Habib Nasir (2)
  
  1. Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Islamabad, Pakistan
  2. School of Chemical and Mechanical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Sector H-12, Islamabad, Pakistan
  

文摘

In the city of Islamabad, drinking water quality at the treatment plant usually meets the country’s hygienic standards. To provide protection against recontamination, concentration of total residual chlorine in treated water is maintained at levels from 0.2 to 0.5?mg/L in tap water of consumer end and rechlorination is not practiced. Some areas of the city have very low residual chlorine at consumer taps and little protection against secondary microbial contamination of water in pipelines. The analysis of the drinking water quality in the distribution network was carried out during March–August 2008 by collecting 80 water samples in triplicate from treatment plants and remaining of the residential taps. The collected samples were examined for total chlorine, free chlorine residual, chloramines, trihalomethanes, total organic carbon, total coliforms, fecal coliforms and turbidity. The water samples collected from sector F-6, F-10 and F-11 were found to be free of fecal contamination while in sectors E-7 and F-7 contamination was found at few stations among all the collected samples. Water samples collected from sectors F-8, G-9, G-8, I-9, and I-8 were highly contaminated with E. coli, at most of the sampling stations. Trihalomethanes and chloroform were detected at high concentrations in sector F-8.