用户名： 密码： 验证码：
Current Epidemiology and Management of Invasive Candidiasis in Infants
详细信息    查看全文
  • 作者：Kanecia O. Zimmerman (1)
    P. Brian Smith (1)
  • 关键词：Neonate ; Candida ; Antifungal therapy ; Fluconazole ; Antifungal prophylaxis ; Nystatin
  • 刊名：Current Fungal Infection Reports
  • 出版年：2014
  • 出版时间：March 2014
  • 年：2014
  • 卷：8
  • 期：1
  • 页码：1-11
  • 全文大小：410 KB
  • 参考文献：1. Stoll BJ et al. Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: the experience of the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics. 2002;110(2 Pt 1):285鈥?1.
    2. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(1):133鈥?3.
    3. Fridkin SK et al. Changing incidence of Candida bloodstream infections among NICU patients in the United States: 1995-2004. Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):1680鈥?.
    4. Montagna MT et al. Invasive fungal infections in neonatal intensive care units of Southern Italy: a multicentre regional active surveillance (AURORA project). J Prev Med Hyg. 2010;51(3):125鈥?0.
    5. Manzoni P et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of prophylactic fluconazole in preterm neonates. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(24):2483鈥?5.
    6. 鈥⑩€?Benjamin Jr DK et al. Neonatal candidiasis: epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical judgment. Pediatrics. 2010;126(4):p. e865鈥?3. / This article illustrates the difficulty in identification of infants who will have IC. Investigators develop a clinical tool using known risk factors for IC in infants. This clinical tool proved more accurate than provider judgment at identification of those who will have IC.
    7. 鈥?Aliaga S, C.R., Laughon M, Benjamin DK, Benjamin Jr DK, Smith PB, / Decreasing Incidence of Neonatal Invasive Candidiasis. Society of Pediatric Research Abstract, 2012. / This work is one of the first to identify decreasing national incidence of neonatal IC. Much of the evidence until this work has suggested continued increase in incidence, but has been based on incidence observed in the late 1990s.
    8. 鈥⑩€?Greenberg RG et al. Empiric Antifungal Therapy and Outcomes in Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants with Invasive Candidiasis. J Pediatr. 2012;161(2):p. 264鈥?69. / This is the first study to indicate potential benefit of empirical antifungal therapy for the the composite endpoint of mortality and NDI. This study uniquely evaluates outcomes of IC by adjusting for patient illness and propensity for receiving empiric therapy.
    9. 鈥?Goudjil S et al. (1鈥?)-尾-D-glucan levels in candidiasis infections in the critically ill neonate. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2013;26(1):p. 44鈥?8. / By using a higher cutpoint than that previously descibed in the literature, / investigaotrs describe how the ( / 1鈥?em class="a-plus-plus">3)-尾- / D- / glucan test may avoid false positive results while maintaining abiity to identify those with IC. This test represents notable advances in diagnosis, / but should be prospectively evaluated in infants at risk for IC.
    10. Steinbach WJ et al. Results from a prospective, international, epidemiologic study of invasive candidiasis in children and neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(12):1252鈥?.
    11. Altuncu E et al. Neonatal Candida infections and the antifungal susceptibilities of the related Candida species. Mikrobiyol Bul. 2010;44(4):p. 593鈥?03.
    12. Kossoff EH, Buescher ES, Karlowicz MG. Candidemia in a neonatal intensive care unit: trends during fifteen years and clinical features of 111 cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(6):504鈥?.
    13. Blyth CC et al. Chemoprophylaxis of neonatal fungal infections in very low birthweight infants: efficacy and safety of fluconazole and nystatin. J Paediatr Child Health. 2012;48(9):846鈥?1.
    14. Rodriguez D et al. Candidemia in neonatal intensive care units: Barcelona Spain. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25(3):224鈥?.
    15. Shivaprakasha S, Radhakrishnan K, Karim PM. Candida spp. other than Candida albicans: a major cause of fungaemia in a tertiary care centre. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2007;25(4):405鈥?.
    16. Farooqi JQ et al. Invasive candidiasis in Pakistan: clinical characteristics, species distribution and antifungal susceptibility. J Med Microbiol. 2013;62(Pt 2):259鈥?8.
    17. Basu SC, Debasrita KD, Subrata DS. Biological Characteristics of NOsocomial Candida tropicalis Isolated from Different Clinical Materials of Critically Ill Patients at ICU. Int J Microbiol Res. 2011;2(2):p. 112鈥?19.
    18. Chapman RL, Faix RG. Invasive neonatal candidiasis: an overview. Semin Perinatol. 2003;27(5):352鈥?.
    19. Kaufman D. Strategies for prevention of neonatal invasive candidiasis. Semin Perinatol. 2003;27(5):414鈥?4.
    20. Saiman L et al. Risk factors for candidemia in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit patients. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey study group. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(4):319鈥?4.
    21. Benjamin Jr DK et al. Neonatal candidiasis among extremely low birth weight infants: risk factors, mortality rates, and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 to 22聽months. Pediatrics. 2006;117(1):84鈥?2.
    22. Benjamin Jr DK et al. Empirical therapy for neonatal candidemia in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2003;112(3 Pt 1):543鈥?.
    23. Johnson DE et al. Systemic candidiasis in very low-birth-weight infants (less than 1,500 grams). Pediatrics. 1984;73(2):138鈥?3.
    24. Saiman L et al. Risk factors for Candida species colonization of neonatal intensive care unit patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001;20(12):1119鈥?4.
    25. Manzoni P et al. Risk factors for progression to invasive fungal infection in preterm neonates with fungal colonization. Pediatrics. 2006;118(6):2359鈥?4.
    26. Farmaki E et al. Fungal colonization in the neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors, drug susceptibility, and association with invasive fungal infections. Am J Perinatol. 2007;24(2):127鈥?5.
    27. Kicklighter SD et al. Fluconazole for prophylaxis against candidal rectal colonization in the very low birth weight infant. Pediatrics. 2001;107(2):293鈥?.
    28. Manzoni P et al. Type and number of sites colonized by fungi and risk of progression to invasive fungal infection in preterm neonates in neonatal intensive care unit. J Perinat Med. 2007;35(3):220鈥?.
    29. Brown AJ, Odds FC, Gow NA. Infection-related gene expression in Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2007;10(4):307鈥?3.
    30. Hube B, Naglik J. Candida albicans proteinases: resolving the mystery of a gene family. Microbiology. 2001;147(Pt 8):1997鈥?005.
    31. Barrett-Bee K et al. A comparison of phospholipase activity, cellular adherence and pathogenicity of yeasts. J Gen Microbiol. 1985;131(5):1217鈥?1.
    32. Lohse MB, Johnson AD. White-opaque switching in Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2009;12(6):650鈥?.
    33. Panagoda GJ, Ellepola AN, Samaranayake LP. Adhesion of Candida parapsilosis to epithelial and acrylic surfaces correlates with cell surface hydrophobicity. Mycoses. 2001;44(1鈥?):29鈥?5.
    34. Bliss JM et al. Candida Virulence Properties and Adverse Clinical Outcomes in Neonatal聽Candidiasis. J Pediatr. 2012;161(3):p. 441鈥?47. e2.
    35. Benjamin Jr DK et al. Neonatal candidemia and end-organ damage: a critical appraisal of the literature using meta-analytic techniques. Pediatrics. 2003;112(3 Pt 1):634鈥?0.
    36. Ascher SB et al. Antifungal therapy and outcomes in infants with invasive Candida infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(5):439鈥?3.
    37. O鈥橞rien D et al. Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2011;153(6):1347鈥?0.
    38. Badiye A et al. Think fungus NOT just a crypto-meningitis in AIDS! J Assoc Physicians India. 2012;60:21鈥?.
    39. Corti M et al. Candida parapsilosis meningitis in a patient with AIDS. Report of a case and review of the literature. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2013;30(2):122鈥?.
    40. Tuomanen E. Susceptibility to infection and age-related changes in the blood-brain barrier. Neurobiol Aging. 1994;15(6):757鈥?. discussion 769.
    41. Zaoutis TE et al. The epidemiology and attributable outcomes of candidemia in adults and children hospitalized in the United States: a propensity analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(9):1232鈥?.
    42. Wynn JL et al. Outcomes following candiduria in extremely low birth weight infants. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(3):331鈥?.
    43. Adams-Chapman, I., et al., / Neurodevelopmental Outcome of Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants with Candida Infection. J Pediatr, 2013.
    44. Benjamin DK et al. Mortality following blood culture in premature infants: increased with Gram-negative bacteremia and candidemia, but not Gram-positive bacteremia. J Perinatol. 2004;24(3):175鈥?0.
    45. Smith PB et al. Excess costs of hospital care associated with neonatal candidemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(3):197鈥?00.
    46. De Pauw B et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(12):1813鈥?1.
    47. Berenguer J et al. Lysis-centrifugation blood cultures in the detection of tissue-proven invasive candidiasis. Disseminated versus single-organ infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1993;17(2):103鈥?.
    48. Schelonka RL et al. Volume of blood required to detect common neonatal pathogens. J Pediatr. 1996;129(2):275鈥?.
    49. Trovato L et al. Detection of fungal DNA in lysis-centrifugation blood culture for the diagnosis of invasive candidiasis in neonatal patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18(3):E63鈥?.
    50. Avni T, Leibovici L, Paul M. PCR diagnosis of invasive candidiasis: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(2):665鈥?0.
    51. Morace G et al. PCR-restriction enzyme analysis for detection of Candida DNA in blood from febrile patients with hematological malignancies. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37(6):1871鈥?.
    52. Ahmad S, Khan Z. Invasive candidiasis: a review of nonculture-based laboratory diagnostic methods. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2012;30(3):264鈥?.
    53. Lehmann LE et al. A multiplex real-time PCR assay for rapid detection and differentiation of 25 bacterial and fungal pathogens from whole blood samples. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2008;197(3):313鈥?4.
    54. Arendrup MC, Fisher BT, Zaoutis TE. Invasive fungal infections in the paediatric and neonatal population: diagnostics and management issues. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(7):613鈥?4.
    55. Tan KE et al. Prospective evaluation of a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry system in a hospital clinical microbiology laboratory for identification of bacteria and yeasts: a bench-by-bench study for assessing the impact on time to identification and cost-effectiveness. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50(10):3301鈥?.
    56. Pulcrano G et al. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and microsatellite markers to evaluate Candida parapsilosis transmission in neonatal intensive care units. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31(11):2919鈥?8.
    57. BioRad, / Platelia Candida Ag Plus: Detection of the mannan antigen of candida in human serum or plasma by immunoenzymatic assay
    58. Oliveri S et al. Experience with the Platelia Candida ELISA for the diagnosis of invasive candidosis in neonatal patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008;14(4):391鈥?.
    59. Montagna MT et al. Diagnostic Performance of 1 / 鈫?/em>3-beta-d-Glucan in Neonatal and Pediatric Patients with Candidemia. Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12(9):5871鈥?.
    60. Rimek D, Singh J, Kappe R. Cross-reactivity of the PLATELIA CANDIDA antigen detection enzyme immunoassay with fungal antigen extracts. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(7):3395鈥?.
    61. Bernard EM et al. Rate of arabinitol production by pathogenic yeast species. J Clin Microbiol. 1981;14(2):189鈥?4.
    62. Sigmundsdottir G et al. Urine D-arabinitol/L-arabinitol ratio in diagnosis of invasive candidiasis in newborn infants. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(8):3039鈥?2.
    63. Walsh TJ et al. Serum D-arabinitol measured by automated quantitative enzymatic assay for detection and therapeutic monitoring of experimental disseminated candidiasis: correlation with tissue concentrations of Candida albicans. J Med Vet Mycol. 1994;32(3):205鈥?5.
    64. Christensson B et al. Diagnosis of invasive candidiasis in neutropenic children with cancer by determination of D-arabinitol/L-arabinitol ratios in urine. J Clin Microbiol. 1997;35(3):636鈥?0.
    65. Mokaddas E et al. Levels of (1 / 鈫?/em>3)-beta-D-glucan. Candida mannan and Candida DNA in serum samples of pediatric cancer patients colonized with Candida species. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10:292.
    66. Smith PB et al. Quantification of 1,3-beta-D-glucan levels in children: preliminary data for diagnostic use of the beta-glucan assay in a pediatric setting. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2007;14(7):924鈥?.
    67. Mularoni A et al. High Levels of beta-D-glucan in immunocompromised children with proven invasive fungal disease. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2010;17(5):882鈥?.
    68. Pickering JW et al. Evaluation of a (1- > 3)-beta-D-glucan assay for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(12):5957鈥?2.
    69. Digby J et al. Serum glucan levels are not specific for presence of fungal infections in intensive care unit patients. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2003;10(5):882鈥?.
    70. Usami M et al. Positive (1 / 鈫?/em>3)-beta-D-glucan in blood components and release of (1 / 鈫?/em>3)-beta-D-glucan from depth-type membrane filters for blood processing. Transfusion. 2002;42(9):1189鈥?5.
    71. Kato A et al. Elevation of blood (1 / 鈫?/em>3)-beta-D-glucan concentrations in hemodialysis patients. Nephron. 2001;89(1):15鈥?.
    72. Nakao A et al. False-positive endotoxemia derives from gauze glucan after hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma with cirrhosis. Hepatogastroenterology. 1997;44(17):1413鈥?.
    73. Held J et al. Comparison of (1- > 3)-beta-D-glucan, mannan/anti-mannan antibodies, and Cand-Tec Candida antigen as serum biomarkers for candidemia. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51(4):1158鈥?4.
    74. Sims ME et al. Prophylactic oral nystatin and fungal infections in very-low-birthweight infants. Am J Perinatol. 1988;5(1):33鈥?.
    75. Aydemir C et al. Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic fluconazole versus nystatin for the prevention of fungal colonisation and invasive fungal infection in very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2011;96(3):F164鈥?.
    76. 鈥⑩€?Austin N, McGuire W. Prophylactic systemic antifungal agents to prevent mortality and morbidity in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;4:p. CD003850. / Pooled analyses of currently available evidence finds benefit in the use of systemic antifungal agents for prophylaxis against IC in infants without advsere effects or emergence of resistance.
    77. Mersal A et al. Oral Nystatin Versus Intravenous Fluconazole as Neonatal Antifungal Prophylaxis: Non-inferiority Trial. J Clin Neonatol. 2013;2(2):88鈥?2.
    78. Violaris K et al. Comparison of fluconazole and nystatin oral suspensions for prophylaxis of systemic fungal infection in very low birthweight infants. Am J Perinatol. 2010;27(1):73鈥?.
    79. Ullmann AJ et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: adults with haematological malignancies and after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18 Suppl 7:53鈥?7.
    80. Mulu A et al. Frequent detection of 'azole' resistant Candida species among late presenting AIDS patients in northwest Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:82.
    81. Sarvikivi E et al. Emergence of fluconazole resistance in a Candida parapsilosis strain that caused infections in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(6):2729鈥?5.
    82. Kaufman D et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis against fungal colonization and infection in preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1660鈥?.
    83. Martin A et al. Impact of 'targeted' fluconazole prophylaxis for preterm neonates: efficacy of a highly selective approach? J Perinatol. 2012;32(1):21鈥?.
    84. Ballot, D.E., et al., / Background changing patterns of neonatal fungal sepsis in a developing country. J Trop Pediatr, 2013
    85. Hope WW et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: prevention and management of invasive infections in neonates and children caused by Candida spp. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18 Suppl 7:38鈥?2.
    86. Manzoni P et al. Routine use of fluconazole prophylaxis in a neonatal intensive care unit does not select natively fluconazole-resistant Candida subspecies. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(8):731鈥?.
    87. Kaufman DA. "Getting to Zero": preventing invasive Candida infections and eliminating infection-related mortality and morbidity in extremely preterm infants. Early Hum Dev. 2012;88 Suppl 2:S45鈥?.
    88. 鈥?Kaufman DA et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely low birth weight infants and neurodevelopmental outcomes and quality of life at 8 to 10聽years of age. J Pediatr. 2011;158(5):p. 759鈥?65. / This article describes longterm sequelae of intervention for IC. Fluconazole prophylaxis is not associated with longterm NDI in ELBW infants.
    89. Aghai ZH et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely low birth weight infants: association with cholestasis. J Perinatol. 2006;26(9):550鈥?.
    90. Bhat V et al. Twice-weekly fluconazole prophylaxis in premature infants: association with cholestasis. Pediatr Int. 2011;53(4):475鈥?.
    91. Barrington KJ. The adverse neuro-developmental effects of postnatal steroids in the preterm infant: a systematic review of RCTs. BMC Pediatr. 2001;1:1.
    92. Agarwal R et al. Effects of oral Lactobacillus GG on enteric microflora in low-birth-weight neonates. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;36(3):397鈥?02.
    93. Manzoni P et al. Bovine lactoferrin supplementation for prevention of late-onset sepsis in very low-birth-weight neonates: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2009;302(13):1421鈥?.
    94. 鈥?Manzoni P et al. Bovine lactoferrin prevents invasive fungal infections in very low birth weight infants: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2012;129(1):p. 116鈥?3. / Probiotics are beneficial in preventing IC in infants.
    95. Lupetti A et al. Human lactoferrin-derived peptide's antifungal activities against disseminated Candida albicans infection. J Infect Dis. 2007;196(9):1416鈥?4.
    96. Garey KW et al. Time to initiation of fluconazole therapy impacts mortality in patients with candidemia: a multi-institutional study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(1):25鈥?1.
    97. Pappas PG et al. Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(7):883鈥?3.
    98. Rowen JL, Tate JM. Management of neonatal candidiasis. Neonatal Candidiasis Study Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(11):1007鈥?1.
    99. Wurthwein G et al. Population pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B lipid complex in neonates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(12):5092鈥?.
    100. Juster-Reicher A et al. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) in the treatment of neonatal candidiasis in very low birth weight infants. Infection. 2000;28(4):223鈥?.
    101. Groll AH et al. Comparative efficacy and distribution of lipid formulations of amphotericin B in experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis. 2000;182(1):274鈥?2.
    102. Manzoni P et al. Correct choices for correct treatments: key issues in the management of Candida infections in preterm neonates. Early Hum Dev. 2012;88(Supplement 2(0)):S98鈥揝100.
    103. Piper L et al. Fluconazole loading dose pharmacokinetics and safety in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(5):375鈥?.
    104. Testoni D, Smith PB, Benjamin Jr DK. The use of antifungal therapy in neonatal intensive care. Clin Perinatol. 2012;39(1):83鈥?8.
    105. Groll AH, Tragiannidis A. Update on antifungal agents for paediatric patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2010;16(9):1343鈥?3.
    106. Pfaller MA et al. Effectiveness of anidulafungin in eradicating Candida species in invasive candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(11):4795鈥?.
    107. Ghannoum MA et al. Differential in vitro activity of anidulafungin, caspofungin and micafungin against Candida parapsilosis isolates recovered from a burn unit. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(3):274鈥?.
    108. 鈥⑩€?Hope WW et al. Population pharmacokinetics of micafungin in neonates and young infants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54(6):p. 2633鈥?. / Investigators perform population PK evaluation and suggest appropriate dosing of micafungin in infants < / 3聽months of age.
    109. Smith PB et al. Pharmacokinetics of an Elevated Dosage of Micafungin in Premature Neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28(5):412鈥?.
    110. Benjamin Jr DK et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of repeat-dose micafungin in young infants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010;87(1):93鈥?.
    111. Hope WW et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of micafungin in experimental hematogenous Candida meningoencephalitis: implications for echinocandin therapy in neonates. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(1):163鈥?1.
    112. Seibel NL et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of Micafungin (FK463) in febrile neutropenic pediatric patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(8):3317鈥?4.
    113. / Micafungin FDA label. 2005, Food and Drug Administration.
    114. Ascher S, Smith PB, Benjamin Jr DK. Safety of micafungin in infants: insights into optimal dosing. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2011;10(2):281鈥?.
    115. Saez-Llorens X et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of caspofungin in neonates and infants less than 3聽months of age. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(3):869鈥?5.
    116. Walsh TJ et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of caspofungin in children and adolescents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(11):4536鈥?5.
    117. Neely M et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of caspofungin in older infants and toddlers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(4):1450鈥?.
    118. Cohen-Wolkowiez M et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of multiple-dose anidulafungin in infants and neonates. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011;89(5):702鈥?.
    119. Bennet JE. Flucytosine. Ann Intern Med. 1977;86(3):319鈥?1.
    120. Polak A, Scholer HJ. Mode of action of 5-fluorocytosine and mechanisms of resistance. Chemotherapy. 1975;21(3鈥?):113鈥?0.
    121. Vermes A, Guchelaar HJ, Dankert J. Flucytosine: a review of its pharmacology, clinical indications, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46(2):171鈥?.
    122. Soltani M et al. Evidence of excessive concentrations of 5-flucytosine in children aged below 12聽years: a 12-year review of serum concentrations from a UK clinical assay reference laboratory. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2006;28(6):574鈥?.
    123. Pasqualotto AC et al. Flucytosine therapeutic monitoring: 15聽years experience from the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;59(4):791鈥?.
    124. Linder N et al. Treatment of candidaemia in premature infants: comparison of three amphotericin B preparations. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52(4):663鈥?.
    125. Driessen M et al. Fluconazole vs. amphotericin B for the treatment of neonatal fungal septicemia: a prospective randomized trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996;15(12):1107鈥?2.
    126. Queiroz-Telles F et al. Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for pediatric patients with invasive candidiasis: substudy of a randomized double-blind trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(9):820鈥?.
    127. Karlowicz MG et al. Should central venous catheters be removed as soon as candidemia is detected in neonates? Pediatrics. 2000;106(5):no.-e63.
    128. Hsieh E et al. Neonatal fungal infections: when to treat? Early Hum Dev. 2012;88(Supplement 2(0)):S6鈥揝10.
    129. Ozturk MA et al. Oral nystatin prophylaxis to prevent invasive candidiasis in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Mycoses. 2006;49(6):484鈥?2.
    130. Wainer S et al. Prophylactic miconazole oral gel for the prevention of neonatal fungal rectal colonization and systemic infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11(9):713鈥?.
    131. Parikh TB et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis against fungal colonization and invasive fungal infection in very low birth weight infants. Indian Pediatr. 2007;44(11):830鈥?.
    132. Arrieta AC et al. Once-weekly liposomal amphotericin B as Candida prophylaxis in very low birth weight premature infants: a prospective, randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled pilot study. Clin Ther. 2010;32(2):265鈥?1.
  • 作者单位：Kanecia O. Zimmerman (1)
    P. Brian Smith (1)

    1. Duke Clinical Research Institute, Box 17969, Durham, NC, 27715, USA
  • ISSN：1936-377X
文摘
Invasive candidiasis (IC) is common in premature infants and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Although the incidence of IC in infants is decreasing, there is marked variability in number of cases by center and geographical region, and current methods for diagnosis are suboptimal. Nonabsorbable antifungals, probiotics, and systemic antifungals have been shown to decrease IC in select populations. Although empirical antifungal therapy may provide benefit to infants with IC, prediction of the disease is difficult. While available antifungal agents appear to be effective in the treatment of IC in infants, knowledge of the optimal type, dose, and duration of antifungal therapy is limited by the low number of available infant studies.

© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号

地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083

电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700