建构主义视角下的涉印恐怖主义
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摘要
印度是目前全球第三大恐怖袭击活动的对象国,恐怖主义对印度的国家安全构成了比较严重的威胁。在对恐怖主义根源分析的研究中,多数学者从经济的视角来分析恐怖主义产生的根源。但从社会建构的视角来分析可以了解涉印恐怖主义产生的根源。穆斯林受到有别于印度教教徒不公平的差别待遇,使其产生被剥夺感,这种不平等的社会建构是导致一些伊斯兰极端主义者报复社会的根源之一。
At present,India ranks third globally in terms of states that are targeted by terrorist activities or attacks. Terrorism constitutes a major challenge to state security for India. In terms of research on the root causes of terrorism,most scholars place their emphasis on economic drivers of terror. From a perspective of social constructivism, one of the drivers of terrorism in India can be better understood: the inequitable treatment experienced by Muslim Indians vis-à-vis Hindi Indians,which causes Muslims to feel oppressed. Such unequitable social constructs cause Muslim extremists to seek revenge on society.
At present,India ranks third globally in terms of states that are targeted by terrorist activities or attacks. Terrorism constitutes a major challenge to state security for India. In terms of research on the root causes of terrorism,most scholars place their emphasis on economic drivers of terror. From a perspective of social constructivism, one of the drivers of terrorism in India can be better understood: the inequitable treatment experienced by Muslim Indians vis-à-vis Hindi Indians,which causes Muslims to feel oppressed. Such unequitable social constructs cause Muslim extremists to seek revenge on society.
引文
(1)Christina Chedid,“Defining Terrorism,Evolution of Modern Terrorism,Old v New Terrorism,Implications for Barricade Hostage Negotiation Scenarios,”Research Gate,January 2013,p.2.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318969746_Defining_Terrorism_Evolution_of_Modern_Terrorism_Old_v_New_Terrorism_Implications_for_barricade_hostage_negotiation_scenarios
(2)Willem Schinkel,“On the Concept of Terrorism,”Contemporary Political Theory,December 2009,p.181.
(3)Elizabeth II Stationery Office,Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974,November 29,1974,p.7.
(4)Vice President of the United States,“Public Report of the Vice President’s Task Forde on Combating Terrorism,”February 1986,p.1.
(5)Ben Saul,“The Challenge of Defining Terrorism,”International Relations and Security Network,September 17,2012,p.2.
(6)Setty Sudha,“What’s in a Name?How Nations Define Terrorism Ten Years after 9/11,” p.16.https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/139-setty33upajintll12011.pdf
(7)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Terrorism Index 2017:Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism Report,”Nov.15.2017,p.19.http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2017.pdf
(8)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Terrorism Index 2017:Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism Report,” p.29.
(9)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Peace Index 2018:Measuring Peace in a Complex World,”June 2018,p.17.http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2018/06/Global-Peace-Index-2018-2.pdf
(10)Ibid.
(11)李伟:《国际恐怖主义与反恐怖斗争年鉴》,北京,时事出版社,2003年版,第182页。
(12)Ramanand Garge,“Rise of Jaish-e-Mohammed in Kashmir Valley:An Internal Security Perspective,”Vivekananda International Foundation,p.8.https://www.vifindia.org/sites/default/files/rise-of-jaish-e-mohammed-in-kashmir-valley.pdf
(13)Ramanand Garge,“Rise of Jaish-e-Mohammed in Kashmir Valley:An Internal Security Perspective,” p.8.
(14)Bill Roggio,“Pakistan again Puts Jaish-e-Mohammed Leaders under Protective Custody,”Foundation for Defense of Democracies,January 16,2016.https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/01/pakistan-again-puts-jaish-e-mohammed-leader-under-protective-custody.php
(15)B.Raman,“Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM)—A Backgrounder,” South Asia Analysis Group Working Paper,No.332,Mar.10,2002.http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper332
(16)Animesh Roul,“Students Islamic Movement of India:A Profile,” Terrorism Monitor,Vol.4,Issue 7,April 6,2006.
(17)Lisa Curtis,“After Mumbai:Time to Strengthen U.S.-India Counterterrorism Cooperation,”The Heritage Foundation,December 9,2008,p.3.
(18)Praveen Swami,“A Bend in the Road,”Outlook India,March 18,2008.https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/a-bend-in-the-road/236995
(19)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,” Global Journal of Political Science and Administration,Vol.4,No.5,December 2016,p.5.
(20)Ibid.
(21)Angel M.Rabasa,“The Rise of ISIS and the Evolving Terrorist Threat in the Asia-Pacific Region,”Quad-Plus Dialogue 2015,February 1-3,2015,p.1.https://thf-reports.s3.amazonaws.com/quad/rabasa.pdf
(22)“Maritime Security Circular,”Dryad Global,Feb.11,2019,p.1.https://dryadglobal.com/maritime-operations/wp-content/uploads/Sample_Product/Global-Security-Circular-Sample.pdf
(23)“IS Counterattack in East Syria Leaves 32 Dead,”Gulf Times,January 8,2019.https://www.gulf-times.com/story/619761/Bomb-blast-rocks-Syrian-capital-Damascus
(24)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.6.
(25)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.6.
(26)“Combating Terrorism:Response Mechanism,”p.8.https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/43679/13/executive%20summary.pdf
(27)Ted Svensson,“Frontiers of Blame:India’s ‘War on Terror’,”Critical Studies on Terrorism,Vol.2,No.1,April 2009,p.27.
(28)“Country Reports on Terrorism 2007,” U.S.Department of State,April 2008,p.132.http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/105904.pdf
(29)“NCTC Annex of the Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,”U.S.Department of State,April 2009,p.128.https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf
(30)“Country Reports on Terrorism 2016,”United States Department of State Publication,Bureau of Counterterrorism,July 2017,pp.244-245.https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/272488.pdf
(31)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.4.
(32)United States Department of State,“Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013,”p.18.https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2013humanrightsreport/
(33)Arka Biswas,“Surgical Strikes and Deterrence -Stability in South Asia,”Observer Research Foundation,June 2017,p.2.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317401391_Surgical_Strikes_and_Deterrence-Stability_in_South_Asia/download
(34)T.Asad,On Suicide Bombing (New York:Columbia University Press,2007).
(35)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”Social Science History,Vol.36,No.3,Fall 2012,p.327.
(36)Ibid.
(37)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”p.329.
(38)Ibid.
(39)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.330.
(40)Ibid.
(41)倪世雄:《当代西方国际关系理论》,上海,复旦大学出版社,2004年版,第227页。
(42)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.330.
(43)新闻媒体常用“大规模骚乱”、“大屠杀”、“种族清洗”等词汇来描述2002年的古吉拉特邦教派冲突。
(44)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.331.
(45)Ibid.
(46)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” pp.331-332.
(47)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” pp.331-333.
(48)“India Tightens Security,PM Admits Intelligence Failings,” Agence France-Presse,September 18,2008.http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j5kunFx9WEECct3hSqM6k02wKedA
(49)Sandeep Unnithan,“Homemade and Deadly,”India Today,October 2,2008.http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?issueid=81&id=16681&option=com_content&task=view §ionid=3
(50)“Social,Economic and Educational Status of Muslim Community of India,”Prime Minister’s High Level Committee,November 2006,p.2.https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/sachar_comm.pdf
(51)K.M.潘尼迦:《印度简史》(简宁译),北京,新世界出版社,2016年版,第304页。
(52)Ram Puniyani,Fascism in India:Debating RSS-BJP Politics (Delhi:Media House,2017),pp.194-210.
(53)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”p.337.
(2)Willem Schinkel,“On the Concept of Terrorism,”Contemporary Political Theory,December 2009,p.181.
(3)Elizabeth II Stationery Office,Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974,November 29,1974,p.7.
(4)Vice President of the United States,“Public Report of the Vice President’s Task Forde on Combating Terrorism,”February 1986,p.1.
(5)Ben Saul,“The Challenge of Defining Terrorism,”International Relations and Security Network,September 17,2012,p.2.
(6)Setty Sudha,“What’s in a Name?How Nations Define Terrorism Ten Years after 9/11,” p.16.https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/139-setty33upajintll12011.pdf
(7)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Terrorism Index 2017:Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism Report,”Nov.15.2017,p.19.http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2017.pdf
(8)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Terrorism Index 2017:Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism Report,” p.29.
(9)Institute for Economics and Peace,“Global Peace Index 2018:Measuring Peace in a Complex World,”June 2018,p.17.http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2018/06/Global-Peace-Index-2018-2.pdf
(10)Ibid.
(11)李伟:《国际恐怖主义与反恐怖斗争年鉴》,北京,时事出版社,2003年版,第182页。
(12)Ramanand Garge,“Rise of Jaish-e-Mohammed in Kashmir Valley:An Internal Security Perspective,”Vivekananda International Foundation,p.8.https://www.vifindia.org/sites/default/files/rise-of-jaish-e-mohammed-in-kashmir-valley.pdf
(13)Ramanand Garge,“Rise of Jaish-e-Mohammed in Kashmir Valley:An Internal Security Perspective,” p.8.
(14)Bill Roggio,“Pakistan again Puts Jaish-e-Mohammed Leaders under Protective Custody,”Foundation for Defense of Democracies,January 16,2016.https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/01/pakistan-again-puts-jaish-e-mohammed-leader-under-protective-custody.php
(15)B.Raman,“Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM)—A Backgrounder,” South Asia Analysis Group Working Paper,No.332,Mar.10,2002.http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper332
(16)Animesh Roul,“Students Islamic Movement of India:A Profile,” Terrorism Monitor,Vol.4,Issue 7,April 6,2006.
(17)Lisa Curtis,“After Mumbai:Time to Strengthen U.S.-India Counterterrorism Cooperation,”The Heritage Foundation,December 9,2008,p.3.
(18)Praveen Swami,“A Bend in the Road,”Outlook India,March 18,2008.https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/a-bend-in-the-road/236995
(19)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,” Global Journal of Political Science and Administration,Vol.4,No.5,December 2016,p.5.
(20)Ibid.
(21)Angel M.Rabasa,“The Rise of ISIS and the Evolving Terrorist Threat in the Asia-Pacific Region,”Quad-Plus Dialogue 2015,February 1-3,2015,p.1.https://thf-reports.s3.amazonaws.com/quad/rabasa.pdf
(22)“Maritime Security Circular,”Dryad Global,Feb.11,2019,p.1.https://dryadglobal.com/maritime-operations/wp-content/uploads/Sample_Product/Global-Security-Circular-Sample.pdf
(23)“IS Counterattack in East Syria Leaves 32 Dead,”Gulf Times,January 8,2019.https://www.gulf-times.com/story/619761/Bomb-blast-rocks-Syrian-capital-Damascus
(24)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.6.
(25)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.6.
(26)“Combating Terrorism:Response Mechanism,”p.8.https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/43679/13/executive%20summary.pdf
(27)Ted Svensson,“Frontiers of Blame:India’s ‘War on Terror’,”Critical Studies on Terrorism,Vol.2,No.1,April 2009,p.27.
(28)“Country Reports on Terrorism 2007,” U.S.Department of State,April 2008,p.132.http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/105904.pdf
(29)“NCTC Annex of the Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,”U.S.Department of State,April 2009,p.128.https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf
(30)“Country Reports on Terrorism 2016,”United States Department of State Publication,Bureau of Counterterrorism,July 2017,pp.244-245.https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/272488.pdf
(31)Shailendra Deolankar,“Reexamining India’s Counter Terrorism Strategy,”p.4.
(32)United States Department of State,“Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013,”p.18.https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2013humanrightsreport/
(33)Arka Biswas,“Surgical Strikes and Deterrence -Stability in South Asia,”Observer Research Foundation,June 2017,p.2.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317401391_Surgical_Strikes_and_Deterrence-Stability_in_South_Asia/download
(34)T.Asad,On Suicide Bombing (New York:Columbia University Press,2007).
(35)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”Social Science History,Vol.36,No.3,Fall 2012,p.327.
(36)Ibid.
(37)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”p.329.
(38)Ibid.
(39)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.330.
(40)Ibid.
(41)倪世雄:《当代西方国际关系理论》,上海,复旦大学出版社,2004年版,第227页。
(42)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.330.
(43)新闻媒体常用“大规模骚乱”、“大屠杀”、“种族清洗”等词汇来描述2002年的古吉拉特邦教派冲突。
(44)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” p.331.
(45)Ibid.
(46)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” pp.331-332.
(47)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,” pp.331-333.
(48)“India Tightens Security,PM Admits Intelligence Failings,” Agence France-Presse,September 18,2008.http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j5kunFx9WEECct3hSqM6k02wKedA
(49)Sandeep Unnithan,“Homemade and Deadly,”India Today,October 2,2008.http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?issueid=81&id=16681&option=com_content&task=view §ionid=3
(50)“Social,Economic and Educational Status of Muslim Community of India,”Prime Minister’s High Level Committee,November 2006,p.2.https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/sachar_comm.pdf
(51)K.M.潘尼迦:《印度简史》(简宁译),北京,新世界出版社,2016年版,第304页。
(52)Ram Puniyani,Fascism in India:Debating RSS-BJP Politics (Delhi:Media House,2017),pp.194-210.
(53)Julia Eckert,“Theories of Militancy in Practice:Explanations of Muslim Terrorism in India,”p.337.