Tectonics induced switching of provenance during the Late Quaternary aggradation of the Indus River Valley, Ladakh, India
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摘要
The Indus River flows through Ladakh, one of the driest and coldest places on earth, in a tectonically active domain. Fluvial, glaciofluvial, lacustrine and debris dominated sequences represent the Late Quaternary sedimentary record along the river course. Karakoram Fault, a major crustal scaled feature reported to be active during the Quaternary, is associated with the Indus River drainage. Linkages between a major, active fault and deposits formed during the activity period of the fault are explored using heavy mineral deduced provenance and Optically Stimulated Luminescence(OSL) chronology.Five deposits in a ~200 km long stretch of the Indus River have been examined for a ~80 ka period to decipher the climate linked aggradation history. Damming of the Indus River at ~79 ka and existence of the Spituk Lake for >30 ka is demonstrated. Using geology of the provenance in relation to the mineralogical attributes of the Quaternary deposits, the major drainage reorganization when the connection of the Tangtse Valley to the Indus was blocked, is inferred at ~73 ka. It is supported by the geologicalgeomorphological evidence. The study demonstrates the application of provenance linked mineralogy in terrestrial aggradation in a tectonically active region.
The Indus River flows through Ladakh, one of the driest and coldest places on earth, in a tectonically active domain. Fluvial, glaciofluvial, lacustrine and debris dominated sequences represent the Late Quaternary sedimentary record along the river course. Karakoram Fault, a major crustal scaled feature reported to be active during the Quaternary, is associated with the Indus River drainage. Linkages between a major, active fault and deposits formed during the activity period of the fault are explored using heavy mineral deduced provenance and Optically Stimulated Luminescence(OSL) chronology.Five deposits in a ~200 km long stretch of the Indus River have been examined for a ~80 ka period to decipher the climate linked aggradation history. Damming of the Indus River at ~79 ka and existence of the Spituk Lake for >30 ka is demonstrated. Using geology of the provenance in relation to the mineralogical attributes of the Quaternary deposits, the major drainage reorganization when the connection of the Tangtse Valley to the Indus was blocked, is inferred at ~73 ka. It is supported by the geologicalgeomorphological evidence. The study demonstrates the application of provenance linked mineralogy in terrestrial aggradation in a tectonically active region.
The Indus River flows through Ladakh, one of the driest and coldest places on earth, in a tectonically active domain. Fluvial, glaciofluvial, lacustrine and debris dominated sequences represent the Late Quaternary sedimentary record along the river course. Karakoram Fault, a major crustal scaled feature reported to be active during the Quaternary, is associated with the Indus River drainage. Linkages between a major, active fault and deposits formed during the activity period of the fault are explored using heavy mineral deduced provenance and Optically Stimulated Luminescence(OSL) chronology.Five deposits in a ~200 km long stretch of the Indus River have been examined for a ~80 ka period to decipher the climate linked aggradation history. Damming of the Indus River at ~79 ka and existence of the Spituk Lake for >30 ka is demonstrated. Using geology of the provenance in relation to the mineralogical attributes of the Quaternary deposits, the major drainage reorganization when the connection of the Tangtse Valley to the Indus was blocked, is inferred at ~73 ka. It is supported by the geologicalgeomorphological evidence. The study demonstrates the application of provenance linked mineralogy in terrestrial aggradation in a tectonically active region.
引文
Banerjee, P., Burgmann, R., 2002. Convergence across the northwest Himalaya from GPS measurements. Geophysical Research Letters 29,13.
Blothe, J.H., Munack, H., Korup, O., Fulling, A., Garzanti, E., Resentini, A., Kubik, P.W.,2014. Late quaternary valley infill and dissection in the Indus River, western Tibetan Plateau margin. Quaternary Science Reviews 94.102-119.
Brown, E.T., Bendick, R., Bourles, D.L., Gaur, V., Molnar, P., 2002. Slip rates of the Karakorum Fault, Ladakh, India, determined using cosmic ray exposure dating of debris flows and moraines. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, 2192.
Brown, E.T., Bendick, R., Bourles, D.L., Gaur, V., Molnar, P., Raisbeck, G.M., Yiou, F.,2003. Early Holocene climate recorded in geomorphological features in Western Tibet. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 199(1), 141-151.
Burgisser, H.M., Gansser, A., 1982. Late Glacial lake sediments of the Indus Valley area, northwestern Himalayas. Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 75(1), 51-63.Basle.
Chevalier, M.L., Ryerson, F.J., Tapponnier, P., Finkel, R., Vander Woerd, J., Haibing, L.,Qing, L., 2005. Slip-rate measurements on the Karakorum Fault may imply secular variations in fault motion. Science 307(5708), 411-414.
Chevalier, M.L.,Valli, F., Li, H., Arnaud, N.,Paquette, J.L., 2013. Comment on"Displacement along the Karakoram fault, NW Himalaya, estimated from LAICP-MS U-Pb dating of offset geologic markers"published by Shifeng Wang et al. in EPSL, 2012. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 363, 242-245.
Dortch, J.M., Owen, L.A., Schoenbohm, L.M., Caffee, M.W., 2011. Asymmetrical erosion and morphological development of the central Ladakh Range, northern India. Geomorphology 135,167-180.
Dunlap, W.J., Wysoczanski, R., 2002. Thermal evidence for early Cretaceous metamorphism in the Shyok suture zone and age of the Khardung volcanic rocks,Ladakh, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20, 481-490.
Fort, M., 1983. Geomorphological Observations in the Ladakh Area(Himalayas):Quaternary Evolution and Present Dynamics. Stratigraphy and Structure of Kashmir and Ladakh, Himalaya. Hindustan Publishing, New Delhi, India,pp. 39-58.
Fort, M., Burbank, D.W., Freytet, P., 1989. Lacustrine sedimentation in a semi-arid alpine setting:an example from Ladakh, northwestern Himalaya. Quaternary Research 31, 332-352.
Garzanti, E., Van Haver, T., 1988. The Indus clastics:forearc basin sedimentation in the Ladakh Himalaya(India). Sed. Geol. 59, 237-249.
Garzanti, E., Vezzoli, G., Ando, S., Paparella, P., Clift, P.D., 2005. Petrology of Indus River sands:a key to interpret erosion history of the Western Himalayan Syntaxis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 229, 287-302.
Guillot, S., Hattori, K.H., de Sigoyer, J., 2000. Mantle wedge serpentinization and exhumation of eclogites:insights from eastern Ladakh, northwest Himalaya.Geology 28(3), 199-202.
Guillot, S., De Sigoyer, J., Lardeaux, J.M., Mascle, G., 1997. Eclogitic metasediments from the Tso Morari area(Ladakh, Himalaya):evidence for continental subduction during India-Asia convergence. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 128(2-3),197-212.
Henderson,A.L., Najman, Y., Parrish, R., BouDagher-Fadel, M., Barford, D.,Garzanti, E., Ando, S., 2010. Geology of the Cenozoic Indus Basin sedimentary rocks:paleoenvironmental interpretation of sedimentation from the western Himalaya during the early phases of India-Eurasia collision. Tectonics 29(6), TC6015.
Huang, C., Zhang, Q., Liu, F., 1989. A preliminary study of paleovegetation and palaeoclimate in the later period of Late Pleistocene in the Bangong Co Lake region of Xigang. Journal of Natural Resources 4, 247-253.
Imsong, W., Bhattacharya, F., Mishra, R.L., Phukan, S., 2017. Karakoram fault in Nubra and Shyok valleys, Ladakh Himalaya. Current Science 112(11), 2295-2305.
Jade, S., Bhatt, B.C., Yang, Z., Bendick, R., Gaur, V.K., et al., 2004. GPS measurements from the Ladakh Himalaya, India:preliminary tests of plate-like or continuous deformation in Tibet. Geological of Society of American Bulletin 116,1385-1391.
Jain, A.K., Singh, S., 2009. Geology and Tectonics of the Southeastern Ladakh and Karakoram Shear Zone:constraints from field observations and U-Pb SHIRIMP ages. Tectonophysics 451,186-205.
Liu, Q., 1993. Paleoclimat et contrainteschronologiquessur les mouvements recent dansl'Ouest du Tibet:Failles du Karakorum et de Longmu Co-Gozha Co, lacs en pull-apart de Longmu Co et de Sumxi Co. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Paris VII, Paris.
Mujtaba, S.A.I., Lal, R., Saini, H.S., Pant, N.C., 2017. Evidence of Formation and breaching of two Palaeo-lakes around Leh in Upper Indus Valley during Late Quaternary. Geological Society of London SP462. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP462.3.
Munack, H., Korup, O.,Resentini, A., Limonta, M., Garzanti, E.,Blothe, J.H.,Scherler,D., Wittmann,H., Kubik,P.W., 2014. Postglacial denudation of western Tibetan Plateau margin outpaced by long-term exhumation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 126(11-12), 1580-1594.
Nag, D., Phartiyal, B., 2015. Climatic variations and geomorphology of the Indus River Valley, between Leh and Batalik, Ladakh(NW Trans Himalayas)in Late Quaternary. Quaternary International 371, 87-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.045.
Norin, E., 1946. Geological Explorations in Western Tibet. Reports from the Scientific Expedition to the North-Western Provinces of China under the Leadership of Dr.Sven Hedin/3. Thule, 214 pp.
Pant, R.K., Phadtare, N.R., Chamyal, L.S., Juyal, N., 2005. Quaternary deposits in Ladakh and Karakoram Himalaya:a treasure trove of the palaeoclimate records.Current Science 88(11), 1789-1798.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., 2009. Soft sediment deformation structures in the Late Quaternary sediments of Ladakh:evidence for multiple phases of seismic tremors in the North western Himalayan Region, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34, 761-770.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Kothari, G.C., 2013. Damming of River Indus during Late Quaternary in Ladakh Region of Trans-Himalaya, NW India:implications to lake formation-climate and tectonics. Chinese Science Bulletin 58(s1),142-155.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Nautiyal, C.M., 2010. Interpretation of the apparent ages in the Ladakh and LahaulSpiti Quaternary lacustrine sediments. Geological Process and Climate Change 105-116. ISBN:978-0230-32192-2.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Upadhyay, R., Ram-Awatar, Sinha, A.K., 2005. Quaternary geology, tectonics and distribution of palaeo-and present fluvio/glacio lacustrine deposits in Ladakh, NW Indian Himalaya-a study based on field observations. Geomorphology 65, 241-256.
Phartiyal, B., Singh, R., Kothyari, G.C., 2015. Late Quaternary geomorphic scenario due to changing depositional regimes in the Tangtse Valley, Trans-Himalaya,NW India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 422,11-24.
Phillips, R.J., 2008. Geological map of the Karakoram Fault zone, eastern Karakoram,Ladakh, NW Himalaya. Journal of Maps 4(1), 21-37.
Rao, D.R., Rai, H., 2006. Signatures of rift environment in the production of garnetamphibolites and eclogites from Tso-Morari region, Ladakh, India:a geochemical study. Gondwana Research 9(4), 512-523.
Sachan, H.K., Mukherjee, B.K., Ogasawara, Y., Maruyama, S., Ishida, H.,Atsumi, M.U.K.O., Yoshioka, N., 2004. Discovery of coesite from Indus Suture Zone(ISZ), Ladakh, India. European Journal of Mineralogy 16(2), 235-240.
Sangode, S.J., Bagati, T.N., 1995. Tectono-climatic signatures in higher Himalayan lakes:a palaeomagnetic rock magnetic approach in the lacustrine sediments of Lamayuru, Ladakh, India. Journal of Himalayan Geology 51-60.
Sangode, S.J., Meshram, D.C., Rawat, S., Suresh, N., Srivastava, P., 2017. Sedimentary and Geomorphicobservations along Pangong strand of the Karakorumfault(NW Himalaya)depicting Holocene Uplift. Himalayan Geology 38(2), 111-128.
Sangode, S.J., Phadtare, N.R., Meshram, D.C., Rawat, S., Suresh, N., 2011. A record of lake outburst in the Indus Valley of Ladakh Himalaya, India. Current Science 100(11), 1712-1718.
Sangode, S.J., Rawat, Suman, Meshram, D.C., Phadtare, N.R., Suresh, N., 2013. Integrated mineral magnetic and lithologic studies to delineate dynamic modes of depositional conditions in the Leh Valley Basin, Ladakh Himalaya, India. Journal Geological Society of India 82, pp. 107-120.
Sant, D.A., Wadhawan, S.K., 2011a. Linkage of paraglacial processes from last glacial to recent inferred from Spituk Sequence, Leh Valley, Ladakh Himalayas, India.Geological Society of India 78,147-156.
Sant, D.A., Wadhawan, S.K., 2011b. Morphostratigraphy and paleoclimate appraisal of the Leh Valley, Ladakh Himalayas, India. Geological Society of India 77,499-510.
Searle, M.P., 1991. Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Mountains, 358. John Wiley, New York.
Searle, M.P., Owen, L.A., 1999. The evolution of the Indus River in relation to topographic uplift, climate and geology of western Tibet, the Trans-Himalayan and High-Himalayan Range. In:The Indus River:Biodiversity, Resources, Humankind. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 210-230.
Searle, M.P., Cottle, J.M., Streule, M.J., Waters, D.J., 2009. Crustal melt granites and migmatites along the Himalaya:melt source, segregation, transport and granite emplacement mechanisms. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 100(1-2), 219-233.
Searle, M.P., Pickering, K.T., Cooper, D.J.W., 1990. Restoration and evolution of the intermontane Indus molasse basin, Ladakh Himalaya, India. Tectonophysics 174,301-314.
Sharma, K., 1990. Petrology, geochemistry and geochronologyof the Ladakh Batholith and its role in the evolution of Ladakhmagmatic arc. In:Sharma, K.K.(Ed.),Geology and Geodynamic Evolution of the Himalayan Collision Zone, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 17(20), pp. 173-194.
Shroder, J.F., Bishop, M.P., 1999. Indus to the sea:evolution of the system and Himalayan geomorphology. In:Meadows, A., Meadows, P.S.(Eds.), The Indus River:Biodiversity, Resources, Humankind. Oxford University Press, Delhi,pp. 231-248.
Thakur, V.C., 1990. Indus Tsangpo suture zone in Ladakh-its tectonostratigraphy and. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences(Earth Planet. Sci.)99(2),169-185.
Thakur, V.C., Misra, D.K., 1984. Tectonic framework of the Indus and Shyok suture zones in eastern Ladakh, northwest Himalaya. Tectonophysics 101(3-4),207-220.
Thakur, V.C., Rawat, B.S., 1992. Geologic Map of Western Himalaya, Scale1:1,000,000. Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India.
Thanh, N.X., Itaya, T., 2008. Electron micro-probe analyses of minerals in garnet-kyanite-staurolite and garnet-staurolite gneisses from Pangong metamorphic complex in Ladakh Himalaya, NW India. In:Bulletin of Research of Institute of Natural Sciences, Okayama University, 34, pp. 7-25.
Thanh, N.X., Sajeev, K., Itaya, 2011. Multiple garnet growth in garnet-kyanite-staurolite gneiss, PangongMetamorphic Complex, Ladakh Himalaya:new constraints on tectonic setting. Lithos 127, 552-563.
Wright, T.J.,Parsons, B., England, P.C., Fielding, E.J., 2004. In SAR observations of low slip rates on the major faults of Western Tibet. Science 305(5681), 236-239.
Blothe, J.H., Munack, H., Korup, O., Fulling, A., Garzanti, E., Resentini, A., Kubik, P.W.,2014. Late quaternary valley infill and dissection in the Indus River, western Tibetan Plateau margin. Quaternary Science Reviews 94.102-119.
Brown, E.T., Bendick, R., Bourles, D.L., Gaur, V., Molnar, P., 2002. Slip rates of the Karakorum Fault, Ladakh, India, determined using cosmic ray exposure dating of debris flows and moraines. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, 2192.
Brown, E.T., Bendick, R., Bourles, D.L., Gaur, V., Molnar, P., Raisbeck, G.M., Yiou, F.,2003. Early Holocene climate recorded in geomorphological features in Western Tibet. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 199(1), 141-151.
Burgisser, H.M., Gansser, A., 1982. Late Glacial lake sediments of the Indus Valley area, northwestern Himalayas. Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 75(1), 51-63.Basle.
Chevalier, M.L., Ryerson, F.J., Tapponnier, P., Finkel, R., Vander Woerd, J., Haibing, L.,Qing, L., 2005. Slip-rate measurements on the Karakorum Fault may imply secular variations in fault motion. Science 307(5708), 411-414.
Chevalier, M.L.,Valli, F., Li, H., Arnaud, N.,Paquette, J.L., 2013. Comment on"Displacement along the Karakoram fault, NW Himalaya, estimated from LAICP-MS U-Pb dating of offset geologic markers"published by Shifeng Wang et al. in EPSL, 2012. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 363, 242-245.
Dortch, J.M., Owen, L.A., Schoenbohm, L.M., Caffee, M.W., 2011. Asymmetrical erosion and morphological development of the central Ladakh Range, northern India. Geomorphology 135,167-180.
Dunlap, W.J., Wysoczanski, R., 2002. Thermal evidence for early Cretaceous metamorphism in the Shyok suture zone and age of the Khardung volcanic rocks,Ladakh, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20, 481-490.
Fort, M., 1983. Geomorphological Observations in the Ladakh Area(Himalayas):Quaternary Evolution and Present Dynamics. Stratigraphy and Structure of Kashmir and Ladakh, Himalaya. Hindustan Publishing, New Delhi, India,pp. 39-58.
Fort, M., Burbank, D.W., Freytet, P., 1989. Lacustrine sedimentation in a semi-arid alpine setting:an example from Ladakh, northwestern Himalaya. Quaternary Research 31, 332-352.
Garzanti, E., Van Haver, T., 1988. The Indus clastics:forearc basin sedimentation in the Ladakh Himalaya(India). Sed. Geol. 59, 237-249.
Garzanti, E., Vezzoli, G., Ando, S., Paparella, P., Clift, P.D., 2005. Petrology of Indus River sands:a key to interpret erosion history of the Western Himalayan Syntaxis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 229, 287-302.
Guillot, S., Hattori, K.H., de Sigoyer, J., 2000. Mantle wedge serpentinization and exhumation of eclogites:insights from eastern Ladakh, northwest Himalaya.Geology 28(3), 199-202.
Guillot, S., De Sigoyer, J., Lardeaux, J.M., Mascle, G., 1997. Eclogitic metasediments from the Tso Morari area(Ladakh, Himalaya):evidence for continental subduction during India-Asia convergence. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 128(2-3),197-212.
Henderson,A.L., Najman, Y., Parrish, R., BouDagher-Fadel, M., Barford, D.,Garzanti, E., Ando, S., 2010. Geology of the Cenozoic Indus Basin sedimentary rocks:paleoenvironmental interpretation of sedimentation from the western Himalaya during the early phases of India-Eurasia collision. Tectonics 29(6), TC6015.
Huang, C., Zhang, Q., Liu, F., 1989. A preliminary study of paleovegetation and palaeoclimate in the later period of Late Pleistocene in the Bangong Co Lake region of Xigang. Journal of Natural Resources 4, 247-253.
Imsong, W., Bhattacharya, F., Mishra, R.L., Phukan, S., 2017. Karakoram fault in Nubra and Shyok valleys, Ladakh Himalaya. Current Science 112(11), 2295-2305.
Jade, S., Bhatt, B.C., Yang, Z., Bendick, R., Gaur, V.K., et al., 2004. GPS measurements from the Ladakh Himalaya, India:preliminary tests of plate-like or continuous deformation in Tibet. Geological of Society of American Bulletin 116,1385-1391.
Jain, A.K., Singh, S., 2009. Geology and Tectonics of the Southeastern Ladakh and Karakoram Shear Zone:constraints from field observations and U-Pb SHIRIMP ages. Tectonophysics 451,186-205.
Liu, Q., 1993. Paleoclimat et contrainteschronologiquessur les mouvements recent dansl'Ouest du Tibet:Failles du Karakorum et de Longmu Co-Gozha Co, lacs en pull-apart de Longmu Co et de Sumxi Co. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Paris VII, Paris.
Mujtaba, S.A.I., Lal, R., Saini, H.S., Pant, N.C., 2017. Evidence of Formation and breaching of two Palaeo-lakes around Leh in Upper Indus Valley during Late Quaternary. Geological Society of London SP462. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP462.3.
Munack, H., Korup, O.,Resentini, A., Limonta, M., Garzanti, E.,Blothe, J.H.,Scherler,D., Wittmann,H., Kubik,P.W., 2014. Postglacial denudation of western Tibetan Plateau margin outpaced by long-term exhumation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 126(11-12), 1580-1594.
Nag, D., Phartiyal, B., 2015. Climatic variations and geomorphology of the Indus River Valley, between Leh and Batalik, Ladakh(NW Trans Himalayas)in Late Quaternary. Quaternary International 371, 87-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.045.
Norin, E., 1946. Geological Explorations in Western Tibet. Reports from the Scientific Expedition to the North-Western Provinces of China under the Leadership of Dr.Sven Hedin/3. Thule, 214 pp.
Pant, R.K., Phadtare, N.R., Chamyal, L.S., Juyal, N., 2005. Quaternary deposits in Ladakh and Karakoram Himalaya:a treasure trove of the palaeoclimate records.Current Science 88(11), 1789-1798.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., 2009. Soft sediment deformation structures in the Late Quaternary sediments of Ladakh:evidence for multiple phases of seismic tremors in the North western Himalayan Region, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34, 761-770.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Kothari, G.C., 2013. Damming of River Indus during Late Quaternary in Ladakh Region of Trans-Himalaya, NW India:implications to lake formation-climate and tectonics. Chinese Science Bulletin 58(s1),142-155.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Nautiyal, C.M., 2010. Interpretation of the apparent ages in the Ladakh and LahaulSpiti Quaternary lacustrine sediments. Geological Process and Climate Change 105-116. ISBN:978-0230-32192-2.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Upadhyay, R., Ram-Awatar, Sinha, A.K., 2005. Quaternary geology, tectonics and distribution of palaeo-and present fluvio/glacio lacustrine deposits in Ladakh, NW Indian Himalaya-a study based on field observations. Geomorphology 65, 241-256.
Phartiyal, B., Singh, R., Kothyari, G.C., 2015. Late Quaternary geomorphic scenario due to changing depositional regimes in the Tangtse Valley, Trans-Himalaya,NW India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 422,11-24.
Phillips, R.J., 2008. Geological map of the Karakoram Fault zone, eastern Karakoram,Ladakh, NW Himalaya. Journal of Maps 4(1), 21-37.
Rao, D.R., Rai, H., 2006. Signatures of rift environment in the production of garnetamphibolites and eclogites from Tso-Morari region, Ladakh, India:a geochemical study. Gondwana Research 9(4), 512-523.
Sachan, H.K., Mukherjee, B.K., Ogasawara, Y., Maruyama, S., Ishida, H.,Atsumi, M.U.K.O., Yoshioka, N., 2004. Discovery of coesite from Indus Suture Zone(ISZ), Ladakh, India. European Journal of Mineralogy 16(2), 235-240.
Sangode, S.J., Bagati, T.N., 1995. Tectono-climatic signatures in higher Himalayan lakes:a palaeomagnetic rock magnetic approach in the lacustrine sediments of Lamayuru, Ladakh, India. Journal of Himalayan Geology 51-60.
Sangode, S.J., Meshram, D.C., Rawat, S., Suresh, N., Srivastava, P., 2017. Sedimentary and Geomorphicobservations along Pangong strand of the Karakorumfault(NW Himalaya)depicting Holocene Uplift. Himalayan Geology 38(2), 111-128.
Sangode, S.J., Phadtare, N.R., Meshram, D.C., Rawat, S., Suresh, N., 2011. A record of lake outburst in the Indus Valley of Ladakh Himalaya, India. Current Science 100(11), 1712-1718.
Sangode, S.J., Rawat, Suman, Meshram, D.C., Phadtare, N.R., Suresh, N., 2013. Integrated mineral magnetic and lithologic studies to delineate dynamic modes of depositional conditions in the Leh Valley Basin, Ladakh Himalaya, India. Journal Geological Society of India 82, pp. 107-120.
Sant, D.A., Wadhawan, S.K., 2011a. Linkage of paraglacial processes from last glacial to recent inferred from Spituk Sequence, Leh Valley, Ladakh Himalayas, India.Geological Society of India 78,147-156.
Sant, D.A., Wadhawan, S.K., 2011b. Morphostratigraphy and paleoclimate appraisal of the Leh Valley, Ladakh Himalayas, India. Geological Society of India 77,499-510.
Searle, M.P., 1991. Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Mountains, 358. John Wiley, New York.
Searle, M.P., Owen, L.A., 1999. The evolution of the Indus River in relation to topographic uplift, climate and geology of western Tibet, the Trans-Himalayan and High-Himalayan Range. In:The Indus River:Biodiversity, Resources, Humankind. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 210-230.
Searle, M.P., Cottle, J.M., Streule, M.J., Waters, D.J., 2009. Crustal melt granites and migmatites along the Himalaya:melt source, segregation, transport and granite emplacement mechanisms. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 100(1-2), 219-233.
Searle, M.P., Pickering, K.T., Cooper, D.J.W., 1990. Restoration and evolution of the intermontane Indus molasse basin, Ladakh Himalaya, India. Tectonophysics 174,301-314.
Sharma, K., 1990. Petrology, geochemistry and geochronologyof the Ladakh Batholith and its role in the evolution of Ladakhmagmatic arc. In:Sharma, K.K.(Ed.),Geology and Geodynamic Evolution of the Himalayan Collision Zone, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 17(20), pp. 173-194.
Shroder, J.F., Bishop, M.P., 1999. Indus to the sea:evolution of the system and Himalayan geomorphology. In:Meadows, A., Meadows, P.S.(Eds.), The Indus River:Biodiversity, Resources, Humankind. Oxford University Press, Delhi,pp. 231-248.
Thakur, V.C., 1990. Indus Tsangpo suture zone in Ladakh-its tectonostratigraphy and. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences(Earth Planet. Sci.)99(2),169-185.
Thakur, V.C., Misra, D.K., 1984. Tectonic framework of the Indus and Shyok suture zones in eastern Ladakh, northwest Himalaya. Tectonophysics 101(3-4),207-220.
Thakur, V.C., Rawat, B.S., 1992. Geologic Map of Western Himalaya, Scale1:1,000,000. Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India.
Thanh, N.X., Itaya, T., 2008. Electron micro-probe analyses of minerals in garnet-kyanite-staurolite and garnet-staurolite gneisses from Pangong metamorphic complex in Ladakh Himalaya, NW India. In:Bulletin of Research of Institute of Natural Sciences, Okayama University, 34, pp. 7-25.
Thanh, N.X., Sajeev, K., Itaya, 2011. Multiple garnet growth in garnet-kyanite-staurolite gneiss, PangongMetamorphic Complex, Ladakh Himalaya:new constraints on tectonic setting. Lithos 127, 552-563.
Wright, T.J.,Parsons, B., England, P.C., Fielding, E.J., 2004. In SAR observations of low slip rates on the major faults of Western Tibet. Science 305(5681), 236-239.