巴基斯坦反美主义的增长及其对区域和平的启示：后9·11时代研究
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摘要
本文第一章阐释巴基斯坦的反美主义并非是虚构,而是持久的历史事实：反美现象已经存在很久。美国不道德地对待和支配巴基斯坦使得巴基斯坦人民内部产生了很深的厌恶情绪。巴基斯坦自成立以来面临很多的安全挑战及生存威胁,这迫使它需要依赖大国获得安全。美国热衷于寻找盟友来反对共产主义,这为巴基斯坦进入美国支持的亚洲安全条约(东南亚国家组织和中央条约组织)创造了条件。美国在安全条约下成为巴基斯坦安全的保护国,相应地巴基斯坦帮助美国抑制共产主义。当苏联击落美国间谍飞机的时候,美国利用其在巴基斯坦的军事前哨来侦查苏联的泄露情况。赫鲁晓夫警告要用核武器对付巴基斯坦,使巴基斯坦面临严重的安全威胁。另外,美国使人反感的行为是对印度的持续支持,而印度自诞生那天起就是巴基斯坦的敌人,并且双方发生了一些激烈的战争。1971年印巴战争之后,印度最终成功地把巴基斯坦分成了两部分,而美国在东南亚的安全保证不能弥补巴基斯坦的伤害。巴基斯坦的巨大不幸使反美情绪更加高涨,在这种环境下巴基斯坦很有必要发展武器来防范不断出现的敌人。华盛顿支持巴基斯坦的另一个独裁者彻底摧毁了巴基斯坦的民主制度,这种情况下,唯一的意图是在苏联入侵阿富汗这一事件上能争取到巴基斯坦的支持。1989年苏联解体之后,共产主义的威胁转移,美国从该地区撤离,使巴基斯坦陷入险境。结果,权力的真空挑战着巴基斯坦和邻近的阿富汗领土,同时巴基斯坦不得不承受大约6百万阿富汗难民,定居在巴基斯坦的他们使巴基斯坦的秩序更加恶化。非法武器交易使巴基斯坦发生了一波又一波的教派冲突,很多武器是苏联部队留下的,但是大多数武器是在美国中央情报局背后走私过来的。外购毒品也使上百万的巴基斯坦年轻人开始吸毒,不仅仅如此,美国的经济制裁更加阻碍了巴基斯坦发展核武器的步调,美国顽固的制裁政策对巴基斯坦经济造成了更大损害,因为它增加了巴基斯坦经济债务负担。巴基斯坦军事政变推翻了民主政府,对于军事接管没有强有力的反对,华盛顿开始对那些能使巴基斯坦重回民主的管理进行一系列新型的制裁。
本章的主旨在于,美国用马基雅维利主义式的政策对待像巴基斯坦这样的盟国,然而华盛顿的政策仅仅是设法保护和促进本国的国家利益而完全抛弃巴基斯坦的利益。基于曲折的历史关系,巴基斯坦人民积攒了很大的反美情绪：美国人只知道自己吃的面包和鱼块,不在乎巴基斯坦人的利益。
第二章讲述了美国和巴基斯坦的“疏远再接触”,在此,疏远再接触指美国实现了从巴基斯坦政府获得支持的目的却遭到了整个民族反对接触,这就是美国在阿富汗失败的主要原因。美国对巴基斯坦的政策一直是公开的,有时美国对巴基斯坦进行军事和财政支持,有时候却又使巴基斯坦遭受严重的经济和军事制裁。尽管美国和巴基斯坦利益和目标很集中,但这是二者关系不可预测的原因,这些不确定因素和偶尔发生的小摩擦都会影响双方之间的关系。这章讲述美国在处理与巴基斯坦关系上,表现出美国政策和美国目标的矛盾以及难以琢磨的美国利益。美国本土突然受到恐怖袭击,这促使美国将巴基斯坦的角色从多余的无赖政府转移到重新评估的伙伴位置。巴基斯坦在循环制裁中日益衰弱和受到束缚,但当美国把巴基斯坦推到远征打击躲避在阿富汗的“基地”组织之后,得到了重新解放。穆沙拉夫在1999年发动军事政变,实施集权体制统治巴基斯坦,美国传统的强制性外交再一次发挥作用,他们设法使巴基斯坦实施集权统治。乔治·布什所说的“要么和我们一起,要么反对我们”没有给巴基斯坦第三种选择。北约在历史上第一次引用“V”条款惩罚恐怖主义者：北约“V”条款明确规定“任何针对一名北约成员的袭击,将被视为对所有北约国家的袭击,并且将采取坚决的措施来维护同盟的受害者”。因为穆沙拉夫是通过违反宪法的军事政变获得权力的,他没有选择而只能接受强制要求。因此我们很容易理解华盛顿为什么会支持巴基斯坦的独裁政权,是因为民主的领导人会因公众压力而无法违背公众意愿,然而独裁者却能运用权力去压制公众的反抗。巴基斯坦在入侵阿富汗这件事的支持是关键性的,没有其他同盟可以代替提供这样有效的帮助。格伦制裁和普雷斯勒修正案的制裁是事实上的提升,同时新型的经济和军事援助是一种鼓励,穆沙拉夫做出在战争中支持美国反对阿富汗的决定激怒了巴基斯坦的民众,巴基斯坦被迫处于反抗阿富汗的前线。穆沙拉夫支持美国的政策是不受欢迎,遭到了全国的反对。美国对巴基斯坦提出了七项要求,并且大部分都直接损害了巴基斯坦的主权。遍布全国的反对声音给五角大楼以明确的信号：巴基斯坦的人民是不支持美国入侵阿富汗的。结果是在前线的战士反对巴基斯坦的基地组织,并且巴基斯坦的平民和军事人员面临着恐怖袭击。
塔利班反抗巴基斯坦并开始针对巴基斯坦。塔利班袭击了巴基斯坦的政治家、军人、平民和外国人。巴基斯坦的基础设施和生命遭受到了巨大损失。据估计,巴基斯坦参与反对“基地”组织战争的直接后果是导致了45137人死亡。尽管在反对恐怖主义战争中遭到了无可比拟的损失,美国依然迫使巴基斯坦,同时对其表现深为不满。美国对巴基斯坦的不信任及对巴基斯坦在打击基地组织战争中贡献的不满,引起了巴基斯坦反美主义的迅速高涨。美国臭名昭著的秘密“黑水”机构和他们的秘密行动,揭开了美国对巴基斯坦的图谋。这个事件最终引发了巴基斯坦大众、媒体、议会等各阶层的反美高潮。冒充的美国外交官被巴基斯坦执法机构指控杀害两名无辜的巴基斯坦人而逮捕：这个简单的雷蒙德·戴维斯事件使美国有机会认识到其在巴基斯坦的不受欢迎度。虽然看起来这是一件小事,但却广泛反映出几乎全国都在反美,并且要求将所谓的外交官实施死刑。即使美国高层领导要求释放雷蒙德·戴维斯,但在巨大的舆论压力下,巴基斯坦政治家不能遵循美国的要求。本章的关键之处在于指出,虽然美国理想时有体现,但美国更多的是盲目追逐利益而践踏民主规范,运用霸权迫使弱国来完成美国所想要的。这是巴基斯坦和其他穆斯林国家反美的主要原因。
论文的第三章是叙述了美国如何蛮横侵犯巴基斯坦主权。美国使用备受争议的“捕食者”战机来侦察,摧毁涉嫌在巴基斯坦部落内隐藏的基地组织,这些引发了最近的动荡不安。适得其反,极不受欢迎的无人驾驶飞机袭击恶化了巴基斯坦局势。无人机的野蛮之处在于它们的附带伤害,有简要的图表显示无人驾驶飞机袭击死亡人数的统计证据。美国的猜疑和公然对巴基斯坦对阿富汗恐怖活动支持的指控,使近期巴美关系日趋紧张。美国对巴基斯坦支持基地组织网络的不信任,反映出美国希望中伤巴基斯坦在国际社会的形象,可能以巴基斯坦国内的主要基地组织及它们与美国相联系为托词,并在西方盟友的支持来进行干涉。消除基地组织头领奥萨马·本·拉登的“海王星之矛”行动,是美国单方面深入巴基斯坦领域的明显证据,即使奥巴马捕获了许多宣称巴基斯坦故意在其领土内隐藏乌萨马的立法者。“海王星之矛”行动不仅仅是使巴基斯坦军政府困惑,而且也是衡量巴基斯坦防范美单方面打击的反应能力。巴基斯坦和美国在涉及到这些紧张局势时双方关系跌入低谷。巴基斯坦的能源危机在削弱经济的同时使人民的生活苦不堪言,巴基斯坦旨在通过已签署的伊朗-巴基斯坦天然气管道项目来克服这些危机。由于美国的惩罚性制裁阻止伊朗核计划,美国向巴基斯坦施加了巨大的外交压力,要求其取消与伊朗之间这样的交易。这些挑战是巴基斯坦实现和平与稳定途径的巨大阻碍,美国对巴基斯坦不符合规定的做法毫无疑问会增强巴基斯坦内的反美主义。
第四章更多是对亨廷顿的文明冲突理论及其存在于伊斯兰国家和西方之间的叙述。世界穆斯林兄弟会的哲学是,世界各地的穆斯林皆为兄弟姐妹,拥有非常紧密的联系,如果任何穆斯林看到其他穆斯林疼痛或痛苦,他们基于这种“兄弟般的情谊”感同身受。巴基斯坦支持其他伊斯兰国家,反之亦然,巴基斯坦也不例外。巴基斯坦甚至在联合国安全理事会(UNSC)的论坛上,反对美国对伊拉克的入侵,谴责虐待关塔那摩囚徒,不必要的入侵和非法占领伊拉克,表明巴基斯坦反对美国非法入侵伊拉克。每当美国授权以色列对抗巴勒斯坦的好战政策时,巴基斯坦的反美主义就会达到高潮。以色列是巴基斯坦最为反感的国家,巴基斯坦因此坚定不会在法理上对以色列予以承认。美国鼓励阿拉伯之春的秘密行动同时也存在着削弱以色列邻国的目标,美国正在进行进一步干涉叙利亚的目的是要推翻阿萨德政权,伊朗正在遭受扼杀制裁,以上所有提到事件清晰地反映出美国和它的欧洲盟友仅仅是正在针对伊斯兰国家。美国大使在叙利亚本加齐的死亡和美国驻巴基斯坦及其他伊斯兰国家领事馆的破坏,反映了伊斯兰国家和西方国家之间的冲突,如果处理不当可能会变得更糟糕。如果美国停止诋毁伊斯兰教及停止将伊斯兰教与恐怖主义之间进行联系,那么反美主义可能会明显减少。
第五章是反美国主义在地区的影响。一个长时间的、优柔寡断的和徒劳的战争会使事情变得更加复杂,因此必须终结。阻碍美国胜利的主要原因是该地区中没有人愿意遵守美国意志,并且爆发出强烈的反美主义情绪。美国在苏联解体后撤离该地区造成了巨大的混乱,反美力量重新集结自己去填补真空并且孕育圣战避难所。如果美国重复同样的错误,没有参与地区重建并解决严重的地区安全问题,而再一次抛弃这个区域,那么比预期更为危险的反美主义将会在其后蔓延到整个地区。有许多军阀试图夺取控制喀布尔并要建立他们自己的秩序。如果没有民主,那么死灰复燃的塔利班和其他类似的战士可能对整个地区产生余震。不稳定的阿富汗会对巴基斯坦造成影响,如果巴基斯坦出错,那么其他国家像印度、中国和南亚国家可能遭到攻击,巴基斯坦不能排除恐惧的多米诺骨牌效应。目前阿富汗和巴基斯坦形势严峻,受到区域行为体的严重关注,需要全面的阿富汗-巴基斯坦战略来处理区域对手。只要巴基斯坦和美国的不信任感仍然存在,地区的和平与发展不可能有任何进展。
Anti-Americanism in Pakistan is not mere a myth but there is a sustained history of realities that nurtured this phenomenon over the course of time. America's unscrupulous dealings with Pakistan injected deep abhorrence among Pakistani populace and ruling junta alike. Since inception, Pakistan faced scores of security challenges and threats to its existence which tugged Pakistan to seek security from great powers. American avidness to find allies against communist peril paved way for Pakistan's entry into American sponsored security pacts in Asia(SEATO and CENTO).Under the tutelage of Security Pacts America became warrantor of Pakistan's security in turn Pakistan vowed to help America in the containment of communism. American military outposts in Pakistan and America's use of this land for reconnaissance of Soviet territories divulged when Soviet forces shot American spy plane down. Nikita Khrushchev's outright warning of attacking Pakistan with nukes scuppered Pakistan's security. Another detestable act of America was unrelenting support to India. India since day first was Pakistan's foeman and both sides engaged into several deadly wars. India at last succeeded to disintegrate Pakistan into two halves in the aftermath of1971India-Pakistan war. American security guarantee under SEATO, CENTO pacts was not redeemed. That great tragedy of Pakistan left irremovable tinctures on Pakistan's anti-American sentiments.In such circumstances it was sine qua non for Pakistan to develop weaponry to defend against incessant foe. Washington's plump for another dictator in Pakistan trounced the democratic institutions in Pakistan. The sole purpose was to clinch Pakistan's reinforcement against Soviet aggression in Afghanistan. After the demise of Soviet Union in1989when the menace of communism was averted America's precipitous disengagement from the region left Pakistan in lurch. As a consequence of that power vacuum many challenges popped up in Pakistan and adjacent Afghan territory. Already dilapidated country (Pakistan) had to bear the burden of about6million Afghan refugees who settled down in Pakistan and further exacerbated law and order situation in Pakistan. Comfortable access to illegal weapons by seekers triggered a wave of sectarian strife in Pakistan. These weapons were left over booty of Soviet troops and major proportion was smuggled from Washington with strong backing of CIA. Outsourcing of drugs in Pakistan affected millions of youth by converting them into drug junkies. Not only this, America clamped tough economic sanctions against Pakistan to block off Pakistan's way to nuclearization. American obstinate policy of sanctions did a great damage to economy which increased heavy burden of debts on Pakistan economy. Another military coup d'etat and overthrow of popular democratic government in Pakistan did not invite any clear and forceful opposition to military take over. Washington lashed another series of newfangled sanctions against Pakistan to revert to democratic governance.
Now the purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate America's 'Machiavellian approach'to deal with a pariah ally like Pakistan. Whatever policy Washington contrived was solely for protecting and promoting its national interest whereas Pakistan's national interest was critically jilted. Based on this historically zigzag relationship, People of Pakistan fostered intense Anti-Americanism with the realization that America looks its own loaves and fishes and does not care for Pakistan's interest.
This paper narrates about'Estranged Reengagement' of America with Pakistan. Estranged reengagements means here that America succeeded in obtaining support from Pakistan government but the whole nation opposed this engagement. That is the main reason of America's failure in Afghanistan. American policy towards Pakistan is of unsealed nature. Sometimes America disburses military and huge financial assistance to Pakistan while other time inflicts with stringent economic and military sanctions. That is the reason despite convergence of interests and goals Pakistan-US relationship is marked with unpredictability. This capriciousness causes episodic hiccups in mutual relations. This chapter narrates the paradox of American policy and American goals and elusive nature of American interests in its relationship with Pakistan. Single incident of terrorist attacks on United States'heartland transformed Pakistan from a redundant and pariah state to an appraised partner. Languishing and fettered Pakistan in the vicious circle of sanctions was set free immediately after America pulled Pakistan in expedition to combat Al-Qaida's safe havens based in Afghanistan. Pakistan was under authoritarian regime of Pervez Musharraf who seized power in a coup d'etat of1999.Washington's conventional style of conducting coercive diplomacy worked again and they managed to take authoritarian government of Pakistan on board. George W. Bush gave no third option to Pakistan in the words like "Are you with us or against us ". Additionally NATO invoked article'V' for the first time in the history to punish terrorists. Article V of NATO stipulates that if any attack is inflicted on any NATO ally each and every member of NATO alliance would consider it as an attack against all members and the entire member would take a stern action to assist the victim ally. Musharraf who ascended to power through unconstitutional ladder of coup d'etat had no option but to accept that coercive demand. It is easily comprehensible that why Washington favors sporadic dictatorships in Pakistan because democratic leadership fears public pressure and do not go against public opinion while dictators in Pakistan wield power to suppress popular uprising. Pakistan's support was lynchpin to invade Afghanistan there was no alternate ally who could offer such an efficacious support. Sanction under Glenn, Symington and Pressler Amendment were lifted and newfangled economic and military aid was pumped up. Musharraf's decision to substantiate America in war against Afghanistan outraged masses. Pakistan was forced to be the frontline state against Afghanistan. Unpopular decision of Musharraf to support America invited terrible protests countrywide. America put seven demands from Pakistan and most of them were in direct contravention of Pakistan's sovereignty. Country-wide terrible protests sent a clear message to Pentagon and its policy makers that people of Pakistan were not supporting American invasion on Afghanistan. As a consequence of becoming frontline state in war against Al-Qaida Pakistan faced a severe blowback of terrorist on its masses and military personnel. Taliban turned against Pakistan and started targeting Pakistan. Taliban attacked Pakistani politicians, military men, commoners and foreigners. Pakistan suffered huge loss of infrastructure and human lives. According to statics estimates45,137people died in Pakistan as a direct consequence of Pakistan's involvement of War against Al-Qaeda. Despite such an incomparable loss in war against terrorism America kept pressing Pakistan to do more and expressed deep dissatisfaction over Pakistan's performance as an ally. American mistrust on Pakistan and non-appreciation of Pakistan's contribution to war against Al Qaeda caused swift upsurge in Anti-Americanism in Pakistan. American notorious secret agency 'Blackwater' and their clandestine operation even unknown to Pakistan unwrapped America's heinous designs in Pakistan. These events culminated into intense anti-American sentiments among Pakistanis at all levels (Populace, Media, Parliament and military machinery).A single incident of Raymond Davis gave America a chance to know its popularity among Pakistanis when an impersonated American diplomat was arrested by Pakistani law enforcement agency on the charges of killing two innocent Pakistanis. Though seemingly it was a small incident but its high magnitude reflected that almost whole nation was anti-American and demanded capital punishment of American so called diplomat. Even American top leadership demanded Raymond Davis'release but under immense public pressure Pakistani politicians could not follow American orders. This chapter is the crux of conception that America does not care for democratic norms but American interests are blindly chased though they sometime are in contrast to American ideals but America uses hegemony to compel weak countries to get American job done. That is the main reason of Anti-Americanism in Pakistan and other Muslim states.
This dissertation is a recital about America's peremptory breach of Pakistan's sovereignty. America's use of controversial 'predator strikes'for reconnaissance and destroying Al-Qaida's suspected safe havens in tribal areas of Pakistan has sparked recent tumultuousness. Counter-productive and highly unpopular drone strikes are rather deteriorating situation in Pakistan. Drone strikes are highly contemptible because of their collateral damage. There are compendia of tables to show statistical evidence of death toll made by drone strikes. America's suspicion and blatant allegations against Pakistan as patron of terrorist activities in Afghanistan sparked off recent tensions in Pakistan-US relations. Mistrust about Pakistan's backing to Al-Qaida network reflects America wants to malign Pakistan's image in international community. By establishing Pakistan as a protagonist of Al-Qaida and its associates America may get an alibi to intervene with complete backing of Western allies. Showcase of operation "Neptune Spear" is vocal evidence of American unilateral action deep inside Pakistan's areas that eliminated Al-Qaida's chief Osama Bin Laden. Even after Osama's hunt down many legislators from U.S leveled allegations that Pakistan deliberately hid Osama out in Pakistan's territory. Operation "Neptune Spear "not only embarrassed Pakistan's military junta but gauged Pakistan's capability to respond in case of American Unilateral strike. Pakistan-US relations touched their lowest ebb amidst those tensions. Energy crisis in Pakistan has crippled economy and made people's life miserable. Pakistan designed to overcome these crises by materializing already inked Iran-Pakistan gas-pipeline project. American exerted immense diplomatic pressure upon Pakistan to call-off such a deal with Iran because of America's punitive sanctions to halt Iranian nuclear program. All of these challenges are great impediment to Pakistan's pathway towards peace and stability. American non-compliant approach towards Pakistan undoubtedly manifolds Anti- Americanism in Pakistan.
Huntington's clash of civilizations theory and its existence between Islamic states and West has been the subject matter of this thesis. Philosophy of Universal Muslim brotherhood enunciates that Muslims all around the world have very strong bond of universal brotherhood based on the religion. Based on this "brotherly feelings" if any Muslim sees other Muslims in pain or agony they feel the same pain for them. Plenty of examples have been used to indicate this kinship. Pakistan's vocal support to other Islamic countries and vice versa shows Pakistan is not an exception. Pakistan's opposition to American invasion on Iraq (2002) even at forum of United Nations Security Council (UNSC), condemnation of Prisoner's abuse at Gitmo, unnecessary invasion and unlawful occupation of Iraq establishes that Pakistan supported Iraq against American illegal invasion. Pakistan's anti-Americanism reaches climax whenever America authorizes Israel's bellicose policies against Palestine. Israel is the most disliked country in Pakistan. Pakistan did not extended De Jure recognition to Israel because of its firm support for Palestine. American clandestine efforts to trigger Arab Spring also favored American objectives of enfeebling Israel's neighbors. America's further intervention in Syria is underway which aims to topple Assad's regime, Iran is suffering from strangling sanctions, all of these above mentions events give a clear reflection that only Islamic countries are being targeted by United States and its European allies. Death of American Ambassador in Ben Ghazi (Libya) and vandalism on American Consulate in Pakistan and other Islamic countries reflects the clash between Islamic and Western countries may go worse if not handled properly. If America stops maligning Islam and halts linking Islam to terrorism then there are good chances that Anti-Americanism may be reduced remarkably.
Lastly it is the juxtaposition of implications of Anti-Americanism on the region and effects arising therefrom. A prolonged, indecisive and futile war now should be brought to an end because the continuation of this would further make things more complex. The main reason that hindered America's triumph is intense anti-Americanism in the region that nobody was willing to comply with United States. American disengagement from the region in the aftermath of Soviet demise made a huge mess. Anti-American elements regrouped themselves to fill the vacuum and bred Jihadist sanctuaries. There is a huge concern that if America repeats the same mistake and abandon the region again without reconstruction and addressing serious regional security issues then a Hydra of anti-Americanism far more dangerous than anticipation would engulf whole region. There are many warlords who are trying to wrest control of Kabul and want to establish their writ. If no democracy functions then resurgence of Taliban and other similar warriors is possible which would send aftershocks to the whole region. An unstable Afghanistan affected Pakistan and if Pakistan goes awry then other states like India, China and whole South Asia may come under fire. A fear of domino effect cannot be ruled out in case of Pakistan. Current critical situation of Afghanistan and Pakistan invites serious attention of regional actors and a comprehensive Afghanistan-Pakistan strategy is required to deal with regional nemesis. Until Pakistan-US mistrust persists there cannot be any progress in regional peace and development.
本章的主旨在于,美国用马基雅维利主义式的政策对待像巴基斯坦这样的盟国,然而华盛顿的政策仅仅是设法保护和促进本国的国家利益而完全抛弃巴基斯坦的利益。基于曲折的历史关系,巴基斯坦人民积攒了很大的反美情绪：美国人只知道自己吃的面包和鱼块,不在乎巴基斯坦人的利益。
第二章讲述了美国和巴基斯坦的“疏远再接触”,在此,疏远再接触指美国实现了从巴基斯坦政府获得支持的目的却遭到了整个民族反对接触,这就是美国在阿富汗失败的主要原因。美国对巴基斯坦的政策一直是公开的,有时美国对巴基斯坦进行军事和财政支持,有时候却又使巴基斯坦遭受严重的经济和军事制裁。尽管美国和巴基斯坦利益和目标很集中,但这是二者关系不可预测的原因,这些不确定因素和偶尔发生的小摩擦都会影响双方之间的关系。这章讲述美国在处理与巴基斯坦关系上,表现出美国政策和美国目标的矛盾以及难以琢磨的美国利益。美国本土突然受到恐怖袭击,这促使美国将巴基斯坦的角色从多余的无赖政府转移到重新评估的伙伴位置。巴基斯坦在循环制裁中日益衰弱和受到束缚,但当美国把巴基斯坦推到远征打击躲避在阿富汗的“基地”组织之后,得到了重新解放。穆沙拉夫在1999年发动军事政变,实施集权体制统治巴基斯坦,美国传统的强制性外交再一次发挥作用,他们设法使巴基斯坦实施集权统治。乔治·布什所说的“要么和我们一起,要么反对我们”没有给巴基斯坦第三种选择。北约在历史上第一次引用“V”条款惩罚恐怖主义者：北约“V”条款明确规定“任何针对一名北约成员的袭击,将被视为对所有北约国家的袭击,并且将采取坚决的措施来维护同盟的受害者”。因为穆沙拉夫是通过违反宪法的军事政变获得权力的,他没有选择而只能接受强制要求。因此我们很容易理解华盛顿为什么会支持巴基斯坦的独裁政权,是因为民主的领导人会因公众压力而无法违背公众意愿,然而独裁者却能运用权力去压制公众的反抗。巴基斯坦在入侵阿富汗这件事的支持是关键性的,没有其他同盟可以代替提供这样有效的帮助。格伦制裁和普雷斯勒修正案的制裁是事实上的提升,同时新型的经济和军事援助是一种鼓励,穆沙拉夫做出在战争中支持美国反对阿富汗的决定激怒了巴基斯坦的民众,巴基斯坦被迫处于反抗阿富汗的前线。穆沙拉夫支持美国的政策是不受欢迎,遭到了全国的反对。美国对巴基斯坦提出了七项要求,并且大部分都直接损害了巴基斯坦的主权。遍布全国的反对声音给五角大楼以明确的信号：巴基斯坦的人民是不支持美国入侵阿富汗的。结果是在前线的战士反对巴基斯坦的基地组织,并且巴基斯坦的平民和军事人员面临着恐怖袭击。
塔利班反抗巴基斯坦并开始针对巴基斯坦。塔利班袭击了巴基斯坦的政治家、军人、平民和外国人。巴基斯坦的基础设施和生命遭受到了巨大损失。据估计,巴基斯坦参与反对“基地”组织战争的直接后果是导致了45137人死亡。尽管在反对恐怖主义战争中遭到了无可比拟的损失,美国依然迫使巴基斯坦,同时对其表现深为不满。美国对巴基斯坦的不信任及对巴基斯坦在打击基地组织战争中贡献的不满,引起了巴基斯坦反美主义的迅速高涨。美国臭名昭著的秘密“黑水”机构和他们的秘密行动,揭开了美国对巴基斯坦的图谋。这个事件最终引发了巴基斯坦大众、媒体、议会等各阶层的反美高潮。冒充的美国外交官被巴基斯坦执法机构指控杀害两名无辜的巴基斯坦人而逮捕：这个简单的雷蒙德·戴维斯事件使美国有机会认识到其在巴基斯坦的不受欢迎度。虽然看起来这是一件小事,但却广泛反映出几乎全国都在反美,并且要求将所谓的外交官实施死刑。即使美国高层领导要求释放雷蒙德·戴维斯,但在巨大的舆论压力下,巴基斯坦政治家不能遵循美国的要求。本章的关键之处在于指出,虽然美国理想时有体现,但美国更多的是盲目追逐利益而践踏民主规范,运用霸权迫使弱国来完成美国所想要的。这是巴基斯坦和其他穆斯林国家反美的主要原因。
论文的第三章是叙述了美国如何蛮横侵犯巴基斯坦主权。美国使用备受争议的“捕食者”战机来侦察,摧毁涉嫌在巴基斯坦部落内隐藏的基地组织,这些引发了最近的动荡不安。适得其反,极不受欢迎的无人驾驶飞机袭击恶化了巴基斯坦局势。无人机的野蛮之处在于它们的附带伤害,有简要的图表显示无人驾驶飞机袭击死亡人数的统计证据。美国的猜疑和公然对巴基斯坦对阿富汗恐怖活动支持的指控,使近期巴美关系日趋紧张。美国对巴基斯坦支持基地组织网络的不信任,反映出美国希望中伤巴基斯坦在国际社会的形象,可能以巴基斯坦国内的主要基地组织及它们与美国相联系为托词,并在西方盟友的支持来进行干涉。消除基地组织头领奥萨马·本·拉登的“海王星之矛”行动,是美国单方面深入巴基斯坦领域的明显证据,即使奥巴马捕获了许多宣称巴基斯坦故意在其领土内隐藏乌萨马的立法者。“海王星之矛”行动不仅仅是使巴基斯坦军政府困惑,而且也是衡量巴基斯坦防范美单方面打击的反应能力。巴基斯坦和美国在涉及到这些紧张局势时双方关系跌入低谷。巴基斯坦的能源危机在削弱经济的同时使人民的生活苦不堪言,巴基斯坦旨在通过已签署的伊朗-巴基斯坦天然气管道项目来克服这些危机。由于美国的惩罚性制裁阻止伊朗核计划,美国向巴基斯坦施加了巨大的外交压力,要求其取消与伊朗之间这样的交易。这些挑战是巴基斯坦实现和平与稳定途径的巨大阻碍,美国对巴基斯坦不符合规定的做法毫无疑问会增强巴基斯坦内的反美主义。
第四章更多是对亨廷顿的文明冲突理论及其存在于伊斯兰国家和西方之间的叙述。世界穆斯林兄弟会的哲学是,世界各地的穆斯林皆为兄弟姐妹,拥有非常紧密的联系,如果任何穆斯林看到其他穆斯林疼痛或痛苦,他们基于这种“兄弟般的情谊”感同身受。巴基斯坦支持其他伊斯兰国家,反之亦然,巴基斯坦也不例外。巴基斯坦甚至在联合国安全理事会(UNSC)的论坛上,反对美国对伊拉克的入侵,谴责虐待关塔那摩囚徒,不必要的入侵和非法占领伊拉克,表明巴基斯坦反对美国非法入侵伊拉克。每当美国授权以色列对抗巴勒斯坦的好战政策时,巴基斯坦的反美主义就会达到高潮。以色列是巴基斯坦最为反感的国家,巴基斯坦因此坚定不会在法理上对以色列予以承认。美国鼓励阿拉伯之春的秘密行动同时也存在着削弱以色列邻国的目标,美国正在进行进一步干涉叙利亚的目的是要推翻阿萨德政权,伊朗正在遭受扼杀制裁,以上所有提到事件清晰地反映出美国和它的欧洲盟友仅仅是正在针对伊斯兰国家。美国大使在叙利亚本加齐的死亡和美国驻巴基斯坦及其他伊斯兰国家领事馆的破坏,反映了伊斯兰国家和西方国家之间的冲突,如果处理不当可能会变得更糟糕。如果美国停止诋毁伊斯兰教及停止将伊斯兰教与恐怖主义之间进行联系,那么反美主义可能会明显减少。
第五章是反美国主义在地区的影响。一个长时间的、优柔寡断的和徒劳的战争会使事情变得更加复杂,因此必须终结。阻碍美国胜利的主要原因是该地区中没有人愿意遵守美国意志,并且爆发出强烈的反美主义情绪。美国在苏联解体后撤离该地区造成了巨大的混乱,反美力量重新集结自己去填补真空并且孕育圣战避难所。如果美国重复同样的错误,没有参与地区重建并解决严重的地区安全问题,而再一次抛弃这个区域,那么比预期更为危险的反美主义将会在其后蔓延到整个地区。有许多军阀试图夺取控制喀布尔并要建立他们自己的秩序。如果没有民主,那么死灰复燃的塔利班和其他类似的战士可能对整个地区产生余震。不稳定的阿富汗会对巴基斯坦造成影响,如果巴基斯坦出错,那么其他国家像印度、中国和南亚国家可能遭到攻击,巴基斯坦不能排除恐惧的多米诺骨牌效应。目前阿富汗和巴基斯坦形势严峻,受到区域行为体的严重关注,需要全面的阿富汗-巴基斯坦战略来处理区域对手。只要巴基斯坦和美国的不信任感仍然存在,地区的和平与发展不可能有任何进展。
Anti-Americanism in Pakistan is not mere a myth but there is a sustained history of realities that nurtured this phenomenon over the course of time. America's unscrupulous dealings with Pakistan injected deep abhorrence among Pakistani populace and ruling junta alike. Since inception, Pakistan faced scores of security challenges and threats to its existence which tugged Pakistan to seek security from great powers. American avidness to find allies against communist peril paved way for Pakistan's entry into American sponsored security pacts in Asia(SEATO and CENTO).Under the tutelage of Security Pacts America became warrantor of Pakistan's security in turn Pakistan vowed to help America in the containment of communism. American military outposts in Pakistan and America's use of this land for reconnaissance of Soviet territories divulged when Soviet forces shot American spy plane down. Nikita Khrushchev's outright warning of attacking Pakistan with nukes scuppered Pakistan's security. Another detestable act of America was unrelenting support to India. India since day first was Pakistan's foeman and both sides engaged into several deadly wars. India at last succeeded to disintegrate Pakistan into two halves in the aftermath of1971India-Pakistan war. American security guarantee under SEATO, CENTO pacts was not redeemed. That great tragedy of Pakistan left irremovable tinctures on Pakistan's anti-American sentiments.In such circumstances it was sine qua non for Pakistan to develop weaponry to defend against incessant foe. Washington's plump for another dictator in Pakistan trounced the democratic institutions in Pakistan. The sole purpose was to clinch Pakistan's reinforcement against Soviet aggression in Afghanistan. After the demise of Soviet Union in1989when the menace of communism was averted America's precipitous disengagement from the region left Pakistan in lurch. As a consequence of that power vacuum many challenges popped up in Pakistan and adjacent Afghan territory. Already dilapidated country (Pakistan) had to bear the burden of about6million Afghan refugees who settled down in Pakistan and further exacerbated law and order situation in Pakistan. Comfortable access to illegal weapons by seekers triggered a wave of sectarian strife in Pakistan. These weapons were left over booty of Soviet troops and major proportion was smuggled from Washington with strong backing of CIA. Outsourcing of drugs in Pakistan affected millions of youth by converting them into drug junkies. Not only this, America clamped tough economic sanctions against Pakistan to block off Pakistan's way to nuclearization. American obstinate policy of sanctions did a great damage to economy which increased heavy burden of debts on Pakistan economy. Another military coup d'etat and overthrow of popular democratic government in Pakistan did not invite any clear and forceful opposition to military take over. Washington lashed another series of newfangled sanctions against Pakistan to revert to democratic governance.
Now the purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate America's 'Machiavellian approach'to deal with a pariah ally like Pakistan. Whatever policy Washington contrived was solely for protecting and promoting its national interest whereas Pakistan's national interest was critically jilted. Based on this historically zigzag relationship, People of Pakistan fostered intense Anti-Americanism with the realization that America looks its own loaves and fishes and does not care for Pakistan's interest.
This paper narrates about'Estranged Reengagement' of America with Pakistan. Estranged reengagements means here that America succeeded in obtaining support from Pakistan government but the whole nation opposed this engagement. That is the main reason of America's failure in Afghanistan. American policy towards Pakistan is of unsealed nature. Sometimes America disburses military and huge financial assistance to Pakistan while other time inflicts with stringent economic and military sanctions. That is the reason despite convergence of interests and goals Pakistan-US relationship is marked with unpredictability. This capriciousness causes episodic hiccups in mutual relations. This chapter narrates the paradox of American policy and American goals and elusive nature of American interests in its relationship with Pakistan. Single incident of terrorist attacks on United States'heartland transformed Pakistan from a redundant and pariah state to an appraised partner. Languishing and fettered Pakistan in the vicious circle of sanctions was set free immediately after America pulled Pakistan in expedition to combat Al-Qaida's safe havens based in Afghanistan. Pakistan was under authoritarian regime of Pervez Musharraf who seized power in a coup d'etat of1999.Washington's conventional style of conducting coercive diplomacy worked again and they managed to take authoritarian government of Pakistan on board. George W. Bush gave no third option to Pakistan in the words like "Are you with us or against us ". Additionally NATO invoked article'V' for the first time in the history to punish terrorists. Article V of NATO stipulates that if any attack is inflicted on any NATO ally each and every member of NATO alliance would consider it as an attack against all members and the entire member would take a stern action to assist the victim ally. Musharraf who ascended to power through unconstitutional ladder of coup d'etat had no option but to accept that coercive demand. It is easily comprehensible that why Washington favors sporadic dictatorships in Pakistan because democratic leadership fears public pressure and do not go against public opinion while dictators in Pakistan wield power to suppress popular uprising. Pakistan's support was lynchpin to invade Afghanistan there was no alternate ally who could offer such an efficacious support. Sanction under Glenn, Symington and Pressler Amendment were lifted and newfangled economic and military aid was pumped up. Musharraf's decision to substantiate America in war against Afghanistan outraged masses. Pakistan was forced to be the frontline state against Afghanistan. Unpopular decision of Musharraf to support America invited terrible protests countrywide. America put seven demands from Pakistan and most of them were in direct contravention of Pakistan's sovereignty. Country-wide terrible protests sent a clear message to Pentagon and its policy makers that people of Pakistan were not supporting American invasion on Afghanistan. As a consequence of becoming frontline state in war against Al-Qaida Pakistan faced a severe blowback of terrorist on its masses and military personnel. Taliban turned against Pakistan and started targeting Pakistan. Taliban attacked Pakistani politicians, military men, commoners and foreigners. Pakistan suffered huge loss of infrastructure and human lives. According to statics estimates45,137people died in Pakistan as a direct consequence of Pakistan's involvement of War against Al-Qaeda. Despite such an incomparable loss in war against terrorism America kept pressing Pakistan to do more and expressed deep dissatisfaction over Pakistan's performance as an ally. American mistrust on Pakistan and non-appreciation of Pakistan's contribution to war against Al Qaeda caused swift upsurge in Anti-Americanism in Pakistan. American notorious secret agency 'Blackwater' and their clandestine operation even unknown to Pakistan unwrapped America's heinous designs in Pakistan. These events culminated into intense anti-American sentiments among Pakistanis at all levels (Populace, Media, Parliament and military machinery).A single incident of Raymond Davis gave America a chance to know its popularity among Pakistanis when an impersonated American diplomat was arrested by Pakistani law enforcement agency on the charges of killing two innocent Pakistanis. Though seemingly it was a small incident but its high magnitude reflected that almost whole nation was anti-American and demanded capital punishment of American so called diplomat. Even American top leadership demanded Raymond Davis'release but under immense public pressure Pakistani politicians could not follow American orders. This chapter is the crux of conception that America does not care for democratic norms but American interests are blindly chased though they sometime are in contrast to American ideals but America uses hegemony to compel weak countries to get American job done. That is the main reason of Anti-Americanism in Pakistan and other Muslim states.
This dissertation is a recital about America's peremptory breach of Pakistan's sovereignty. America's use of controversial 'predator strikes'for reconnaissance and destroying Al-Qaida's suspected safe havens in tribal areas of Pakistan has sparked recent tumultuousness. Counter-productive and highly unpopular drone strikes are rather deteriorating situation in Pakistan. Drone strikes are highly contemptible because of their collateral damage. There are compendia of tables to show statistical evidence of death toll made by drone strikes. America's suspicion and blatant allegations against Pakistan as patron of terrorist activities in Afghanistan sparked off recent tensions in Pakistan-US relations. Mistrust about Pakistan's backing to Al-Qaida network reflects America wants to malign Pakistan's image in international community. By establishing Pakistan as a protagonist of Al-Qaida and its associates America may get an alibi to intervene with complete backing of Western allies. Showcase of operation "Neptune Spear" is vocal evidence of American unilateral action deep inside Pakistan's areas that eliminated Al-Qaida's chief Osama Bin Laden. Even after Osama's hunt down many legislators from U.S leveled allegations that Pakistan deliberately hid Osama out in Pakistan's territory. Operation "Neptune Spear "not only embarrassed Pakistan's military junta but gauged Pakistan's capability to respond in case of American Unilateral strike. Pakistan-US relations touched their lowest ebb amidst those tensions. Energy crisis in Pakistan has crippled economy and made people's life miserable. Pakistan designed to overcome these crises by materializing already inked Iran-Pakistan gas-pipeline project. American exerted immense diplomatic pressure upon Pakistan to call-off such a deal with Iran because of America's punitive sanctions to halt Iranian nuclear program. All of these challenges are great impediment to Pakistan's pathway towards peace and stability. American non-compliant approach towards Pakistan undoubtedly manifolds Anti- Americanism in Pakistan.
Huntington's clash of civilizations theory and its existence between Islamic states and West has been the subject matter of this thesis. Philosophy of Universal Muslim brotherhood enunciates that Muslims all around the world have very strong bond of universal brotherhood based on the religion. Based on this "brotherly feelings" if any Muslim sees other Muslims in pain or agony they feel the same pain for them. Plenty of examples have been used to indicate this kinship. Pakistan's vocal support to other Islamic countries and vice versa shows Pakistan is not an exception. Pakistan's opposition to American invasion on Iraq (2002) even at forum of United Nations Security Council (UNSC), condemnation of Prisoner's abuse at Gitmo, unnecessary invasion and unlawful occupation of Iraq establishes that Pakistan supported Iraq against American illegal invasion. Pakistan's anti-Americanism reaches climax whenever America authorizes Israel's bellicose policies against Palestine. Israel is the most disliked country in Pakistan. Pakistan did not extended De Jure recognition to Israel because of its firm support for Palestine. American clandestine efforts to trigger Arab Spring also favored American objectives of enfeebling Israel's neighbors. America's further intervention in Syria is underway which aims to topple Assad's regime, Iran is suffering from strangling sanctions, all of these above mentions events give a clear reflection that only Islamic countries are being targeted by United States and its European allies. Death of American Ambassador in Ben Ghazi (Libya) and vandalism on American Consulate in Pakistan and other Islamic countries reflects the clash between Islamic and Western countries may go worse if not handled properly. If America stops maligning Islam and halts linking Islam to terrorism then there are good chances that Anti-Americanism may be reduced remarkably.
Lastly it is the juxtaposition of implications of Anti-Americanism on the region and effects arising therefrom. A prolonged, indecisive and futile war now should be brought to an end because the continuation of this would further make things more complex. The main reason that hindered America's triumph is intense anti-Americanism in the region that nobody was willing to comply with United States. American disengagement from the region in the aftermath of Soviet demise made a huge mess. Anti-American elements regrouped themselves to fill the vacuum and bred Jihadist sanctuaries. There is a huge concern that if America repeats the same mistake and abandon the region again without reconstruction and addressing serious regional security issues then a Hydra of anti-Americanism far more dangerous than anticipation would engulf whole region. There are many warlords who are trying to wrest control of Kabul and want to establish their writ. If no democracy functions then resurgence of Taliban and other similar warriors is possible which would send aftershocks to the whole region. An unstable Afghanistan affected Pakistan and if Pakistan goes awry then other states like India, China and whole South Asia may come under fire. A fear of domino effect cannot be ruled out in case of Pakistan. Current critical situation of Afghanistan and Pakistan invites serious attention of regional actors and a comprehensive Afghanistan-Pakistan strategy is required to deal with regional nemesis. Until Pakistan-US mistrust persists there cannot be any progress in regional peace and development.
引文
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3 Pakistan existed in two territorial parts named East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Due to Indian aggression as a result of 1971 India-Pakistan war couple with internal strife East Pakistan got separated from West Pakistan and it is called Bangladesh since its independence in 1971.
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