基于SMA的具有抓取功能的软体机器人力转换机制及机械臂刚度的研究
|
摘要
本文主要研究嵌入式形状记忆合金驱动器的技术方法。提出了两种不同类型的软体机器人方案：一个内嵌SMA丝、具有抓取复杂物体功能的机器人夹爪和一个内嵌SMA弹簧的类似章鱼触手的机器人手臂。机器人夹爪能够模拟人类手指的动作,它的设计初衷是研究手指在抓取物体时发生的力的转换和分配机制。章鱼机器人手臂能够模拟章鱼触手的弯曲动作,它的设计目的是分析手臂在自然状态下或抓取物体时的刚度。机器人手指和手臂是由硅弹性体铸模制成。将SMA驱动器通过螺钉固定在圆柱模具的合适位置,并在室温下对模具进行硅弹性体浇铸,当硅弹性体凝固后铸件会变得柔软,可以作为人工肌肉使用。值得注意的是,SMA驱动器应当对称嵌入硅弹性体手指中,从而平衡软体机器人夹爪在抓取物体时传递的力。
另一方面,根据活章鱼的流体静力学特性及其触手上纵向和横向的肌肉分布,我们将SMA驱动器线性地嵌入章鱼机器人手臂中。利用直流电源对上述两种软体机器人进行测试。试验结果表明软体机器人夹爪能够抓取并提起各种复杂形状的物体,并且随着SMA驱动器上电压和电流的增大软体机器人夹爪上的抓取力也不断增大,主要原因是SMA驱动器的驱动力与驱动器两端的电压呈线性增大关系；内嵌两种不同形式的SMA驱动器的章鱼机器人手臂的变形量很小,主要原因是SMA驱动器在给定的电压下很快达到临界点且在该临界点只能提供非常小的驱动力。试验结果同样也显示出嵌入式和未嵌入式SMA驱动器之间的细微差别,其中的原因可能是宿体介质中的应力变化。
在上述通电加热试验中,我们观察得到SMA弹簧相较于SMA丝能够使章鱼机器人手臂产生更好的变形。因此,为了进一步研究SMA丝的变形特性,设计另一个试验：去除SMA丝两端的供电电压,将SMA丝连接至一个驱动器。该驱动器能够将电压转换为力矩并传递给SMA丝,毫无疑问,该试验能够使内嵌SMA丝的章鱼机器人手臂产生很好地弯曲变形。然而,之所以选择SMA丝而不是选择SMA弹簧或者铜线、钢丝等其他试验材料是因为SMA丝具有较高的抗拉强度、柔韧性和弹性。根据章鱼机器人手臂的弯曲变形推算出该手臂的弹性模量(杨氏模量)较小,因此机器人手臂的刚度较小,这也可能表明了一个活的章鱼触手的刚度也很小。综上所述,两种由有机硅弹性体材料制成的软体机器人不仅具有良好的化学稳定性,而且便于操作,对环境没有污染。正因为如此,这种材料也正被医院广泛使用。
The technical approach of embedded shape memory alloy actuators (ESMAA) is presented herein. Two forms of shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators, that is, SMA wire and SMA spring were embedded in two different soft robots, namely:(1) a robot gripper for picking complex objects and (2) an octopus robot arm. They were designed to analyze the force distribution mechanism on the gripping fingers as well as the stiffness on the octopus arm. The robot gripper is capable of displaying humanoid actions and was designed basically to investigate the force transfer occurring on the fingers cast in form of rods. The second design is an octopus robot-arm used in analyzing the stiffness of an octopus on the arms when relaxed in its natural habitat or when gripping objects. The rods cast as human fingers and octopus arms were made from silicon elastomers using molds. The casting was done at room temperature and allowed to harden after which they became flexible and soft. They were thereafter, embedded with SMA actuators as artificial muscles. On the soft robot gripper fingers, the insertion of SMA actuators was done symmetrically to create the equilibrium needed to balance the force transfer that occurs during actuation for effective gripping.
On the other hand, the SMA actuator was inserted linearly in the octopus robot arm in line with the hydrostatic nature of the octopus and the longitudinal and transverse oblique muscle-array of the arms which aids muscular elongation and contraction. In testing the designs, the DC motor with a voltage gauge, was connected to make for duty ratio adjustment of the current and displayed controllable actuations. The soft robot gripper gripped and lifted all kinds of objects with complex shapes. Tests showed that the gripping force on the soft robot fingers increased with a corresponding increase in current and voltage. Investigations also revealed a slight difference between the embedded and unembedded SMA actuators, probably due to variations in interface stress in the host medium. Similarly, comparative observations from the robot gripper showed that the two forms of SMA actuators on the designed octopus arms displayed deformations short of what is required of an octopus arm. This is because the gripper, the arm with embedded spring, and the arm with embedded wire produced very low actuation and return force, and were quick to reach rupture points at a given voltage.
Nonetheless, it was observed that the SMA springs gave better deformations than the SMA wires in all the scenarios tested. Thus, in order to go on with the search for further solution, the voltage supply to the SMA wire was withdrawn and the wire connected to a driver. The driver then received the voltage and transmitted it to the SMA wire in form of torque. This, no doubt, produced excellent deformations semblance to an octopus arm. However, the SMA wire was chosen in preference for SMA springs or other tested materials because of its high tensile strength, elasticity, flexibility and ability to bend around obstacles when compared to SMA springs, steel wires, copper wires or ordinary rope. The modulus of elasticity deduced from the robot arms gave small values of Young's moduli, an indication that the stiffness on the robot arms are small. This may also be used to suggest that the stiffness on the arm of a live octopus is small. The two kinds of structures designed herein are simple to manipulate, with no negative impact on the environment. The silicone elastomer used as flesh, are chemically-inert and are now being used as medical grade materials in hospitals.
另一方面,根据活章鱼的流体静力学特性及其触手上纵向和横向的肌肉分布,我们将SMA驱动器线性地嵌入章鱼机器人手臂中。利用直流电源对上述两种软体机器人进行测试。试验结果表明软体机器人夹爪能够抓取并提起各种复杂形状的物体,并且随着SMA驱动器上电压和电流的增大软体机器人夹爪上的抓取力也不断增大,主要原因是SMA驱动器的驱动力与驱动器两端的电压呈线性增大关系；内嵌两种不同形式的SMA驱动器的章鱼机器人手臂的变形量很小,主要原因是SMA驱动器在给定的电压下很快达到临界点且在该临界点只能提供非常小的驱动力。试验结果同样也显示出嵌入式和未嵌入式SMA驱动器之间的细微差别,其中的原因可能是宿体介质中的应力变化。
在上述通电加热试验中,我们观察得到SMA弹簧相较于SMA丝能够使章鱼机器人手臂产生更好的变形。因此,为了进一步研究SMA丝的变形特性,设计另一个试验：去除SMA丝两端的供电电压,将SMA丝连接至一个驱动器。该驱动器能够将电压转换为力矩并传递给SMA丝,毫无疑问,该试验能够使内嵌SMA丝的章鱼机器人手臂产生很好地弯曲变形。然而,之所以选择SMA丝而不是选择SMA弹簧或者铜线、钢丝等其他试验材料是因为SMA丝具有较高的抗拉强度、柔韧性和弹性。根据章鱼机器人手臂的弯曲变形推算出该手臂的弹性模量(杨氏模量)较小,因此机器人手臂的刚度较小,这也可能表明了一个活的章鱼触手的刚度也很小。综上所述,两种由有机硅弹性体材料制成的软体机器人不仅具有良好的化学稳定性,而且便于操作,对环境没有污染。正因为如此,这种材料也正被医院广泛使用。
The technical approach of embedded shape memory alloy actuators (ESMAA) is presented herein. Two forms of shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators, that is, SMA wire and SMA spring were embedded in two different soft robots, namely:(1) a robot gripper for picking complex objects and (2) an octopus robot arm. They were designed to analyze the force distribution mechanism on the gripping fingers as well as the stiffness on the octopus arm. The robot gripper is capable of displaying humanoid actions and was designed basically to investigate the force transfer occurring on the fingers cast in form of rods. The second design is an octopus robot-arm used in analyzing the stiffness of an octopus on the arms when relaxed in its natural habitat or when gripping objects. The rods cast as human fingers and octopus arms were made from silicon elastomers using molds. The casting was done at room temperature and allowed to harden after which they became flexible and soft. They were thereafter, embedded with SMA actuators as artificial muscles. On the soft robot gripper fingers, the insertion of SMA actuators was done symmetrically to create the equilibrium needed to balance the force transfer that occurs during actuation for effective gripping.
On the other hand, the SMA actuator was inserted linearly in the octopus robot arm in line with the hydrostatic nature of the octopus and the longitudinal and transverse oblique muscle-array of the arms which aids muscular elongation and contraction. In testing the designs, the DC motor with a voltage gauge, was connected to make for duty ratio adjustment of the current and displayed controllable actuations. The soft robot gripper gripped and lifted all kinds of objects with complex shapes. Tests showed that the gripping force on the soft robot fingers increased with a corresponding increase in current and voltage. Investigations also revealed a slight difference between the embedded and unembedded SMA actuators, probably due to variations in interface stress in the host medium. Similarly, comparative observations from the robot gripper showed that the two forms of SMA actuators on the designed octopus arms displayed deformations short of what is required of an octopus arm. This is because the gripper, the arm with embedded spring, and the arm with embedded wire produced very low actuation and return force, and were quick to reach rupture points at a given voltage.
Nonetheless, it was observed that the SMA springs gave better deformations than the SMA wires in all the scenarios tested. Thus, in order to go on with the search for further solution, the voltage supply to the SMA wire was withdrawn and the wire connected to a driver. The driver then received the voltage and transmitted it to the SMA wire in form of torque. This, no doubt, produced excellent deformations semblance to an octopus arm. However, the SMA wire was chosen in preference for SMA springs or other tested materials because of its high tensile strength, elasticity, flexibility and ability to bend around obstacles when compared to SMA springs, steel wires, copper wires or ordinary rope. The modulus of elasticity deduced from the robot arms gave small values of Young's moduli, an indication that the stiffness on the robot arms are small. This may also be used to suggest that the stiffness on the arm of a live octopus is small. The two kinds of structures designed herein are simple to manipulate, with no negative impact on the environment. The silicone elastomer used as flesh, are chemically-inert and are now being used as medical grade materials in hospitals.
引文
[1]Jackson, C.M., H.J. Wagner, and R.J. Wasilewski. "55-Nitinol--The Alloy with a Memory:Its Physical Metallurgy, Properties, and Applications:A Report". Washington:NASA,1972.
[2]Harvard University:"Embedded Pneumatic Networks (EPN)". Whitesides Group Research; 2012:Accessed:April 2013 http://gmwgroup.harvard.edu/research/index.php?page=23
[3]Journal of Humanoid Robotics:"Service and Entertainment Robots 2012":Accessed:April 2013 http:\\www.inl.gov/adaptiverobotics/humanoidrobotics/leggedlocomotion.shtml:
[4]Toi, Y., Lee, J.B, and Taya, M. (2004). "Finite element analysis of superelastic, large deformation behavior of shape memory alloy helical springs" Comput. Struct.821685-93
[5]Budiansky, B., Hutchinson J. W. and Evans, A. G. (1986). "Matrix fracture in fiber-reinforced ceramics". J.Mech. Phys. Solids 34 167-89
[6]Wolfram Research, Inc.,1991 "Mathematica, Version 2.0" (Wolfram Research, Inc., Champaign, Illinois)
[7]Tanaka, K., and Nagaki, S. (1982). "A thermomechanical description of materials with internal variables in the process of phase Transitions", Ing.-Arch.51287-99
[8]Michael. O. Obaji., Shiwu Zhang. "Investigation into the Force Distribution Mechanism of a Soft Robot Gripper Modeled for Picking Complex Objects Using Shape Memory Alloy Actuators". Proceedings of the IEEE Int'l Conference on Cybernetics, Intelligent Systems and Robotics, Automation & Mechatronics (CIS-RAM), Manila Philippines, Nov.11-16,2013, P.7. ISBN:978-1-4799-1198-1
[9]Love, A. E. H., (1994). "A treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity", New York; Dover
[10]Aguiar, R. A. A., Savi, M. A, and Pacheco, P. M. C. L.2010:"Experimental and numerical investigations of shape memory alloy helical springs", Smart Mater. Struct.19025008
[11]Online Journal on production of silicone elastomers. Accessed; April 2013 http://www.silicone.jp/e/catalog/pdf/rubber_e.pdf
[12]Richard.G. Budynas., J. Keith Nisbett. "Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw Hill Higher Education; 9th revised edition, January 1,2011
[13]Online Journal:"How to Build a Robot Octopus". Accessed October 11,2013 http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-to-build-a-robot-octopus
[14]Online Journal:"Facts about Octopuses". Accessed October 9th,2013 http://animals.about.com/od/molluscs/a/octopus-facts.htm
[15]Michael O. Obaji., Shiwu Zhang. "A Comprehensive Analysis of the Effects of Stiffness along Octopus Robot Arm Modeled with Shape Memory Alloy Actuators". Journal of Field Robotics (Under Review, SCI, El,2014)
[16]McNichols, J. L Jr., and Cory, J.S. (1987). "Thermodynamics of nitinol", J. Appl Phys.61 972-84.
[17]Perkins, I.1975:Shape Memory Effects in Alloys (New York Plenum)
[18]Buehler, W. J and Wiley, R. C. (1965). "Nickel-base alloys", U.S Patent 3174 P851
[19]Boyd, J. G and Lagoudas, D. C. (1996). "A thermodynamic constitutive model for the shape memory alloy materials. Part I:The monolithic shape memory alloy", Int. J. Plast.12 805-42
[20]Artificial muscles:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Muscle; Accessed:December 21st 2013.
[21]Y. Hayakawa, S. Kawamura. "Sensing Actuators Using a Pneumatic Bellows System and its Application to a Soft Gripper"., International Conference on Robotics and Automation; Atlanta Georgia, USA. May 1993
[22]Yoshikawa, Shoko., Shrout, Thomas. (1993):"Multilayer Piezoelectric actuator-Structures & reliability", Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conf,34th & AIAA/ASME Adaptive Structures Forum, La Jolla, CA., Tech Papers. Pt.6 (A9333876 1339), p. 3581-3586
[23]Bayraktaroglu, Z.Y., Kilicarslan, A.& Kuzucu, A. (2006):"Design and Control of Biologically Inspired Wheel-less Snake-like Robot". Proc.1st IEEE/RAS-EMBS Int. Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BIOROB'06), pp.1001-1006.
[24]Braganza, D., Dawson, D.M., Walker, I.D., Nath, N. (2006), "Neural network grasping controller for continuum robots.45th IEEE Int'l Conference on Decision and Control, San Diego:IEEE,6445-6449.
[25]Burdick, J.W., Radford, J.& Chirikjian, G.S. (1993). "A'side-winding'locomotion gait for hyper-redundant robots"., Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp.101-106
[26]Gravagne, I.A., Walker, I.D. (2002). "Manipulability, Force, and Compliance Analysis for Planar Continuum Manipulators", IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, Vol.18, N3
[27]Ido, Zelman., Yoram, Yekutieli. "Kinematics of Octopus Arm Movements":The Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, OCTOPUS Consortium Meeting, FORTH, April 2009
[28]Katherine, Harmon Courage "Octopus! The Most Mysterious Creature in the Sea":8 Amazing Octopus Abilities (Current Hardcover, October 2013).
[29]Brinson, L. C., (1993) "One-dimensional constitutive behavior of shape memory alloys: thermo-mechanical derivation with non-constant material functions and redefined martensite internal variable", J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.4229-42
[30]Liang, C., and Rogers, C. A. (1997). "Design of shape memory alloy springs with applications in vibration control. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.8314-22
[31]Fremond, M., (1987). Materiaux a memoire de forme C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris 34 239-44
[32]Fremond, M., (1996). "Shape memory alloy:A Thermo-mechanical Macroscopic Theory", CISM Courses and Lectures (Berlin:Springer)
[33]Savi, M. A., Paiva, A., Baeta-Neves, A. P., and Pacheco, P.M.C.L. (2002). "Phenomenological modeling and numerical simulation of shape memory alloys:a thermo-plastic-phase transformation coupled model". J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.13261-73
[34]Baeta-Neves, A.P., Savi, M. A., and Pacheco, P. M. C.L. (2004). "On the Fremond's constitutive model for shape memory alloys":Mech. Res. Commun.31677-88
[35]Morgan, N.B., (2004). "Medical shape memory alloy applications-the market and its products":Mater. Sci. Eng. A 37816-23
[36]Haetl, D. J and Lagoudas, D.C., (2007). "Aerospace applications of shape memory alloys", Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. G 221535-52 (special issue)
[37]Webb, G., Wilson, L., Lagoudas, D. C., and Rediniotis, O. (2000) "Adaptive control of shape memory alloy actuators for underwater biomimetic applications", AIAA J.38325-34
[38]Otsuka, K., and Wayman, C. M (ed). (1999):Shape Memory Materials (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
[39]Cho, K. J., Koh, J. S., Kim, S., Chu, W. S., Hong, Y., and Ahn, H. (2009). "Review of manufacturing processes".
[40]Y. Nakano., M. Fujie., and Y. Hosada, "Hitachi's Robot Hand," Robotics Age, vol.6, no.7, July 1984, pp.18-20
[41]Joseph, E. Shigley., and Charles, R. Mischke. "Mechanical Engineering Design",5th Edition, McGraw Hill,1989, P.123
[42]R.C. Juvinall., and K.M. Marshek. "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design,2nd Edition", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,1991, p.427-452
[43]T. Waram., "Design Principles for Ni-Ti Actuators," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.234-244.
[44]T. C. Waram., "Actuator Design Using Shape Memory Alloys,2nd Edition", Hamilton, Ontario,1993
[45]T.W. Duerig., and G.R. Zadno. "An Engineer's Perspective of Pseudo-elasticity". Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London, 1990, pp.369-393
[46]Y. Suzuki, and H. Tamura. "Fatigue Properties of Ni-Ti Shape Memory Alloys," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp. 256-266.
[47]K. Otsuka., "Introduction to the R-Phase Transition," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.36-45.
[48]T.W. Duerig., and C. M. Wayman, "An Introduction to Martensite and Shape Memory," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London, 1990, pp.3-20.
[49]J. Perkins, and D. Hodgson, "The Two Way Shape Memory Effect," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.195-206.
[50]Jorma, Ryhanen (Ph.D). "Biocompatibility Evaluation of Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Metal Alloy", Thesis, Oulu University, Finland, (1999), Available in PDF format online at: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn 9514252217/:Accessed 29/08/2013
[51]Free Encyclopedia:"Elastomer":http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomer:Accessed January 1, 2014
[52]Stockwell Elastomerics:"Silicone Sponge and Silicone Rubber Gaskets, Seals, Cushions, and Material", http://www.stockwell.com/data-sheets/silicone-materials-guide.pdf:Accessed January 1,2014
[53]Kluessendorf, J.; Doyle, P. (2000). "Pohlsepia Mazonensis, an Early'Octopus'from the Carboniferous of Illinois, USA". Palaeontology 43 (5):919. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00155. edit
[54]University of Melbourne. "Tentacles of venom:new study reveals all octopuses are venomous", Media Release, Wednesday 15 April 2009
[55]Norman, M. (2000). "Cephalopods:A World Guide". ConchBooks, Hackenheim. p.15. ISBN 978-3-925919-32-9
[56]Eyers, Nadia. "Tales from the Cryptic:The Common Atlantic Octopus":Southeastern Regional Taxonomic Center. Retrieved 2006-07-27
[57]Norman, M.D., Finn, J., Tregenza, T. (September 2001). "Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus":Proceedings of the Royal Society 268 (1478):1755-8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708. PMC 1088805. PMID 11522192. Accessed:January 1,2014
[58]Norman, M.D. (2005). "The "Mimic Octopus" (Thaumoctopus mimicus n. gen. et sp.), a new octopus from the tropical Indo-West Pacific (Cephalopoda:Octopodidae)". Molluscan Research 25:57-70.
[59]Young, R.E., M. Vecchione., and K.M. Mangold. (1999). "Cephalopoda Glossary":Tree of Life web project
[60]Kawamura, G. et al. (2001). "Color Discrimination Conditioning in Two Octopus Octopus aegina and O. vulgaris". Nippon Suisan Gakkashi 67 (1):35-39.
[61]Wells, Martin John. "Octopus:physiology and behaviour of an advanced invertebrate", London:Chapman and Hall; New York:distributed in the U.S.A. by Halsted Press,1978.
[62]Matt Walker (15 June 2009). "The cephalopods can hear you". BBC. Retrieved 2013-07-19
[63]C.L. Huffard., (2006). "Locomotion by Abdopus aculeatus"
[64]Huffard, C. L., Boneka, F., Full, R.J (2005). "Underwater Bipedal Locomotion by Octopuses in Disguise":Science 307 (5717):1927. doi:10.1126/science.1109616. PMID 15790846. Accessed:January 1,2014
[65]O'Shea, S. (2002). "Haliphron atlanticus:-a giant gelatinous octopus":Biodiversity Update 5: 1.
[66]Norman, M. (2000). "Cephalopods:A World Guide". ConchBooks, Hackenheim. p.214
[67]High, W.L. (1976). "The giant Pacific octopus":U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Marine Fisheries Review 38 (9):17-22.
[68]Online Etymological Dictionary:octopus (Retrieved 19 July 2013)
[69]Octopus. Dictionary.com:"Collins English Dictionary-Complete & Unabridged,10th Edition". HarperCollins Publishers http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/octopus: Accessed:July 19,2013
[70]Octopus. Dictionary.com:"Dictionary.com Unabridged". Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/octopus:Accessed:July 19,2013
[71]Henry, George Liddell., Robert Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon":οκτωπουζ (Retrieved 19 July 2013)
[72]Henry, George Liddell., Robert Scott. "Oktapous":A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
[73]Jershow, P. "Silicone Elastomers":Wacker-Chemie GmbH Published:2002
[74]Roux, Marie Ange. (2007). "Processing pharmaceutical polymers". Pharmaceutical Polymers, 2007:Smithers Rapra. p.28 ISBN 9781847350176
[75]Shin Etsu. "Characteristic Properties of Silicone Rubber Compounds":Accessed:January 2, 2014. http://www.silicone.jp/e/catalog/pdf/rubber_e.pdf
[76]The Free Library:"Overview of silicone rubber materials". http://www.thefreelibrary.com/An+overview+of+silicone+rubber.-a0105557239:Accessed: January 1,2014
[77]Timcorubber:"Silicone rubber properties" http://www.timcorubber.com/rubber-materials/silicone.htm:Accessed:January 1,2014
[78]Keller et al., "A Self-Healing Poly (dimethyl siloxane) Elastomer"; Advanced Functional Materials, v.17, p.2399-2404 (2007).
[79]Keller et al., "Torsion Fatigue Response of Self-Healing Poly (dimethyl siloxane) Elastomers"; Polymer, v.49 p.3136-3145 (2008).
[80]Brydson, John (1999) "Plastics Materials"; Butterworth,9th Ed
[81]Lewis, P.R., Reynolds, K and Gagg, C (2004) "Forensic Materials Engineering:Case Studies", CRC Press.
[82]G. Robinson & J.B.C. Davies, "Continuum Robots-A State of the Art," IEEE Conf. Robotics and Automation, pp.2849-2854, Detroit, MI, May 1999.
[83]G. Chen, M. T. Pham, T. Redarce, C. Prelle and F. Lamarquem, "Design and modeling of a micro-robotic manipulator for colonoscopy," Proc.5th Int. Workshop on Research and Education in Mechatronics, Annecy, France, June 2005
[84]D. Trivedi, C.D. Rahn, W.M. Kier and I.D. Walker, "Soft Robotics:Biological Inspiration, State of the Art, and Future Research", Applied Bionics and Biomechanics, Vol.5, No.2, September 2008, pp.99-117.
[85]R. Cieslak and A. Morecki, "Elephant trunk type elastic manipulator-a tool for bulk and liquid type materials transportation," Robotica, Vol.17, pp.11-16,1999.
[86]P. Arena., C. Bonomo., L. Fortuna., M. Frasca and S. Graziani, "Design and control of an IPMC wormlike robot," IEEE Trans, on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, part B,Vol.36, No. 5,2006
[87]W. M. Kier and K. K. Smith, "Tongues, Tentacles, and Trunks:The Biomechanics of Movement in Muscular-hydrostats", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol.83, pp. 307-324,1985
[88]J. F. V. Vincent Stealing ideas from nature. "Deployable Structures":Edited by S. Pellegrino, Vienna:Springer, pp.51-58,2005
[89]B. Webb., T. Consi., "Biorobotics:Methods and Applications", MIT Press,2001
[90]P. Dario., M.C. Carrozza., E. Guglielmelli., C. Laschi., A. Menciassi., S. Micera, F. Vecchi, "Robotics as a "Future and Emerging Technology":biomimetics, cybernetics and neuro-robotics in European projects", IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine, Vol.12, No.2, June 2005, pp.29-43.
[91]L. Manfredi., E.S. Maini., C. Laschi., P. Dario., B. Girard., N. Tabareau., A. Berthoz., "Implementation of a neurophysiological model of saccadic eye movements on an anthropomorphic robotic head", IEEE International Conference Humanoids 2006, Genova, Italy,4-6 December,2006.
[92]B. Hochner., E. R. Brown., M. Langella., T. Shomrat., G. Fiorito., "A Learning and Memory Area in the Octopus Brain Manifests a Vertebrate-Like Long-Term Potentiation", J Neurophysio190:3547-3554,2003.
[93]B. Hochner, T. Shomrat, G. Fiorito, "The Octopus:A Model for a Comparative Analysis of the Evolution of Learning and Memory Mechanisms", Biol. Bull.210:308-317,2006.
[94]G. Sumbre., Y. Gutfreund., G. Fiorito., T. Flash., B. Hochner "Control of Octopus Arm Extension by a Peripheral Motor Program", Science, Vol.293,7 September 2001.
[95]Y. Yekutieli., G. Sumbre., T. Flash., B. Hochner, "How to move with no rigid skeleton":The octopus has the answers". Biologist,49 (6),2002
[96]Y. Yekutieli., R. Sagiv-Zohar., R. Aharonov., Y. Engel., B. Hochner., T. Flash., "Dynamic Model of the Octopus Arm:Biomechanics of the Octopus Reaching Movement", J Neurophysiol94:1443-1458,2005.
[97]G. Sumbre., G. Fiorito., T. Flash., B. Hochner "Octopuses Use a Human-like Strategy to Control Precise Point-to-Point Arm Movements", Current Biology,16,767-772, April 18, 2006
[98]Y. Gutfreund., T. Flash., Y. Yarom., G. Fiorito., I. Segev., "Organization of octopus arm movements:a model system for Studying the Control of Flexible Arms," J. Neurosci.16, 7297-7307,1996
[99]G. Sumbre., Y. Gutfreund., G. Fiorito.,T. Flash., B. Hochner., "Control of octopus arm extension by a peripheral motor program," Science 293,1845-1848,2001.
[100]Y. Gutfreund., T. Flash., G. Fiorito., and B. Hochner., "Patterns of muscle activation involved in octopus reaching movements,", J. Neurosci.18,5976-5987,1998
[101]G. Sumbre, G. Fiorito, T. Flash, B. Hochner, "Neurobiology:Motor control of flexible octopus arms", Nature 433,595-596,2005.
[102]B. Tuller., M.T. Turvey., and H.L. Fitch., "The Bernstein perspective:II. The concept of muscle linkage or coordinative structure," InJ. A. S. Kelso (ed.) Human Motor Behavior: An Introduction, Erlbaum, NJ,1982.
[103]Subrata Ghoshal. (2009) "Embedded Systems & Robots:Projects Using the 8051 Microcontroller", ISBN:9789814272896.
[104]Stiffness:Online Journal:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffness. Accessed:January 9,2014
[105]TAP 228-4:"Measuring the stiffness of materials". Online Journal: tap.iop.org/mechanics/materials/file_39558.do Accessed:January 9,2014
[106]Preethi Manuel:Online Journal 16th August2010 http://suite101.com/article/apples-and-pears-a-very-english-harvest-a276932...Prethi. Accessed:April 5th,2013
[107]Falcioni, John G. "Shape Memory Alloys." Mechanical Engineering Apr.1992:114.
[108]Kauffman, George, and Isaac Mayo. "Memory Metal." Chem. Matters Oct.1993:4-7.
[109]Rogers, Craig. "Intelligent Materials". Scientific American Sept.1995:154-157.
[110]Stoeckel, Dieter, and Weikang Yu. "Superelastic Nickel-Titanium Wires." Available from Ray chem Corporation, Menlo Park, CA.
[111]Kauffman, G. B. and Mayo, I. Chemistry and History:The Story of Nitinol:The Serendipitous Discovery of the Memory Metal and Its Applications
[112]R.G. Gilbertson,3rd Edition, Muscle Wires Project Book, Mondo-tronics, Inc., San Anselmo, CA.,1994.9..
[113]R.C. Juvinall, and K.M. Marshek,2nd Edition, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,1991, p.427-452.
[114]Newton's Laws and the Electrical Force:Online Journal on "Static Electricity": http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/u813d Accessed:February 5,2014
[115]Modern Grinding (2014)., "Nitinol Manufacturing" by WordPress: http://www.nitinols.com/nitinol-k-wire/:Accessed February 4th,2014.
[116]W.J. Buehler, J.W. Gilfrich & R.C. Wiley, "Effects of low-temperature phase changes on the mechanical properties of alloys near composition TiNi," Journal of Applied Physics 34 (1963) p 475. doi:10.1063/1.1729603
[117]F.E. Wang, W.J. Buehler & S.J. Pickart, "Crystal structure and a unique martensitic transition of TiNi," Journal of Applied Physics 36 (1965) p 3232-3239
[118]Lagoudas D C 2008 Shape Memory Alloys (New York:Springer Science and Business Media, LLC)
[119]C.B. Churchill, J.A. Shaw, and M.A. Iadicola (2009)., "Tips and Tricks for Characterizing Shape Memory Alloy Wire"; Society for Experimental Mechanics; doi: 10.1111/j.1747-1567.2008.00460.x
[120]Shaw, J.A., and Kyriakides, S., "On the Nucleation and Propagation of Phase Transformation Fronts in a NiTi Alloy,"Acta Materialia 45(2):683-700 (1997,
[121]. Shaw, J.A., and Kyriakides, S., "Thermomechanical Aspects of NiTi,"Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 43(8):1243-1281 (1995).
[122]Chou, C and Hannaford, B; (1996)., "Measurement and modelling of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles". IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom.1290-102
[123]O'Halloran A and O'Malley F (2004)., Materials and technologies for artificial muscle:a review for the mechatronic muscle project Topics in Bio-Mechanical Engineeringed P J Prendergast and P E McHugh pp 184-215
[124]Baughman, R H (1996)., Conducting polymer artificial muscles Synth. Met.78339-53
[125]Kingsley, D; Quinn, R and Ritzmann, R; (2003)., "A cockroach inspired robot with artificial muscles"; Int. Symp. on Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines (Kyoto, Japan, AMAM 2003)
[126]T. Speeter, "Primitive Based Control of the MIT/Utah Hand", Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. on Robotics and Automation,1991, pp.866-875.
[127]B. Hoff, M. A. Arbib, "Models of Trajectory Formation and Temporal Interaction of Reach and Grasp," Journal of Motor Behavior, September 1993, vol 25, no.3, pp.175-192
[128]E. Oztop, N. S. Bradley and M. A. Arbib, "Infant grasp learning:A computational model," Experimental Brain Research. October 2004. vol.158, no.4, pp.1432-1106
[129]M. Csencsits, B.A. Jones, W. McMahan, V. Iyengar, and I.D. Walker, "User Interfaces for Continuum Robot Arms", Proc. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Edmonton, Canada, August 2005, pp.3011-3018
[130]M. T. Turvey and C. Carello. "Dynamics of Bernstein's level of synergies". In M.L. Latash & M. T. Turvey (Eds.) "Dexterity and its Development". Mahwah, NY:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.1996. pp.339-376.
[131]H. Funakabo, ed. translated from Japanese by J.B. Kennedy, Shape Memory Alloys, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Holland,1987.
[132]W. McMahan, V. Chitrakaran, M. Csencsits, D. Dawson, I.D. Walker, B. Jones, M. Pritts, D. Dienno, M. Grissom and C.D Rahn, "Field Trials and Testing of the OctArm Continuum Manipulator", Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. on Robotics, and Automation; Orlando, FL,2006, pp 2336-2341
[133]W. McMahan, Continuum Manipulators:Air-Octor and Synergy-Based Operation, M.S. Thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, December 2000
[134]N. Bernstein, The Coordination and Regulation of Movement, Pergomon Press, London, 1967
[135]B. Tuller, M.T., Turvey, and H. L. Fitch, "The Bernstein perspective:II. The concept of muscle linkage or coordinative structure," In J. A. S. Kelso (ed.) Human Motor Behavior:An Introduction, Erlbaum, NJ,1982
[136]I. D. Walker, D. Dawson, T. Flash, F. Grasso, R. Hanlon, B. Hochner, W. Kier, C. Pagano, C. Rahn, and Q. Zhang, "Continuum Robot Arms Inspired by Cephalopods", SPIE Intl. Society for Optical Engineering Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 2005. pp.303-314.
[137]Young's Modulus Jaycen Herndon Partners:Skyler Johnson and Dan Stine Danville Area Community College PHYS 107; October 16,2009
[138]Abbott, N.J., Williamson R., and Maddock L. (1995) Cephalopod Neurobiology. Oxford Science Publications.
[139]Agin V., Poirier R., Chichery R., Dickel L.& Chichery M.-P. (2006a) Development of multimemory stages in the cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,86,264-269
[140]Brooks, W.R. (1988). The influence of the location and abundance of the sea anemone Calliactis tricolor (Le Sueur) in protecting hermit crabs from octopus predators. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 116,15-21
[141]Boycott, B.B. (1954). Learning in Octopus vulgaris and other cephalopods. Pubbl. zool. Napoli 25,67-93
[142]Cousteau, J.Y.,& Diole, P. (1973). Octopus and Squid:The Soft Intelligence. London, Cassell Dilly, N., Nixon, M.& Packard A. (1964) Forces exerted by Octopus vulgaris. Pubbl. Staz. Staz. Napoli 34,86-97
[143]Fiorito, G., Biederman, G. B.& Gherardi, F. (1998). The role of stimulus preexposure in problem solving by Octopus vulgaris. Anim. Cogn.1,107-112
[144]Graziadei, P., (1965) Muscle receptor in cephalopods. Proc. Roy. Soc. B.,161:392-402.
[145]Graziadei, P., (1971) The nervous system of the arms. In:The Anatomy of the Nervous System of Octopus vulgaris (Young JZ, ed), p 45-61. Oxford: Clarendon Press
[146]M. Pietrzakowski, Dynamics of thermally activated shape memory alloy reinforced laminated beams, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics 4(36) (1998) 879-893.
[147]Kuba, M., J., Zullo, L., Byrne, R., A.,& Hochner B. (2006) Visual Habituation in the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) Geologica-Acta Universitas Cariolinae.49:147-150
[148]Gutfreund, Y., Matzner, H., Flash, T., Hochner, B. (2006) Patterns of Motor Activity in the Isolated Nerve Cord of the Octopus Arm. Biol Bull 211:212-222
[149]Josephson, R. K.1(975)., "Extensive and intensive factors determining the performance of striated muscle". J. Exp. Zool.194,135-154
[150]Kuba, M., J., Byrne, R., A., Meisel, D., V.,& Mather J., A. (2006) When do octopuses play? The effect of repeated testing, age and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris. J Comp Psychol.120(3),184-190
[151]Kuhn, A. (1950). Uber Farbwechsel und Farbensinn von Cephalopoden. Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Physiologie 32,572-598
[152]Kier, W.M. (1982) The functional morphology of the musculature of squid (Loliginidae) arms and tentacles. J Morphol 172:179-192
[153]Kier, W., M. (1985) The musculature of squid arms and tentacles:ultrastructural evidence for functional differences. J. Morphol.185,223-239
[154]Kier, W., M. (1988) The arrangement and function of molluscan muscle. In:The Mollusca (Wilbure K., M., ed). San Diego:Academic Press
[155]Kier, W., M.& Stella, M., P. (2007) The arrangement and function of octopus arm musculature and connective tissue. J Morphol 268:831-843
[156]Mackintosh, N.J. (1965). Discrimination learning in the Octopus. Animal Behaviour, Suppl. 1,129-134
[157]Mackintosh, N.J. (1974). The Psychology of Animal Learning. London, Academic Press
[158]Mackintosh, N.J. (1983). Conditioning and Associative Learning. Oxford, Clarendo
[159]Mather, J.A. (1984). Development of behaviour in Octopus joubini Robson,1929. Vie et Milieu 34,17-20
[160]Mather, J.A. (1995). Cognition in cephalopods. Advances in the Study of Behavior 24, 317-353
[161]Messenger, J. B. (1970). Optomotor responses and nystagmus in intact, blinded and statocystless cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis L.). Journal of Experimental Biology 53,789-796
[162]Messenger, J. B. (1973). Learning in the cuttlefish, Sepia. Animal Behaviour 21,801-826
[163]Messenger, J. B. (1983) Multimodal convergence and the regulation of motor programs incephalopods. Fortschritte der Zoologie,28:77-98
[164]Mikhailoff, S. (1920). Experiences reflexologiques. Experiences nouvelles sur Eledone moschata. Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique (Monaco) 398,1-11
[165]Nixon, M.& Dilly, P., N, (1977) Sucker surfaces and prey capture. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 38:447-511
[166]Nixon, M.& Young, J., Z. (2003) The Brains and Lives of Cephalopods. Oxford University Press
[167]Offer, G. (1987) Myosin filaments. In Fibrous protein structure (ed. J. M. Squire & P. J. Vibert), pp.307 356. London:Academic Press
[168]Parker, (1921) The power of adhesion in the suckers of Octopus bimaculatus Verill. J. exp. Zoology 33,391-394
[169]Pieron, H. (1911). Contribution a la psychologie du poulpe. Bulletin de l'Institut general psychologique 11,111-119
[170]Robertson, J., D. (1994). Cytochalisin D blocks touch learning in Octopus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 258,61-66
[171]Robertson, J., D., Bonaventura, J.& Kohm, A., P. (1994). Nitric oxide is required for tactile learning in Octopus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 256, 269-273
[172]Schiller, P. H (1949) Delayed detour response in the octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 42,220-225
[173]M. Pietrzakowski, Natural frequency modification of thermally activated composite plates, Meccanica 1 (2000) 313-320
[174]Van Leeuwen, J. L.& Spoor, C., W. (1992) Modelling mechanically stable muscle architectures. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B336,275-292
[175]Van Leeuwen, J., L. (1991) Optimum power output and structural design of sarcomeres. J. Theor. Biol.149,229-256.
[176]Van Leeuwen, J., L.& Kier W., M. (1997) Functional design of tentacles in squid:linking sarcomere ultrastructure to gross morphological dynamics. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 352, 551-571
[177]Walker, J., J., Longo, N.& Bitterman, M., E. (1970). The octopus in the laboratory: handling, maintenance, and training. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation 2, 15-18
[178]Wells, M. J. (1958) Factors affecting reactions to Mysis by newly hatched Sepia. Behaviour 13,96-111.
[179]Wells, M.J. (1959) Functional evidence for neuron fields representing the individual arms within the central nervous system of Octopus. Journal of Experimental Biology 36,501-511
[180]Wells, M., J. (1962a) Brain and Behaviour in Cephalopods. London, Heinemann
[181]Wells, M., J. (1962b) Early learning in Sepia. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 8,149-169
[182]Wells, M., J. (1964) Detour experiments with octopus. Journal of Experimental Biology 41, 621-642
[183]Wells, M., J. (1967) Short-term learning and interocular transfer in detour experiments with octopuses. Journal of Experimental Biology 47,393-408
[184]Yekutieli, Y., Mitelman, R., Hochner, B.,& Flash T (2007) Analyzing octopus movements using three dimensional reconstruction. J Neurophysiol:00739.02006
[185]Young, J., Z. (1971) The anatomy of the nervous system of Octopus vulgaris. Claredon Press Oxford
[186]Young, J. Z. (1976) "The'cerebellum'and the control of eye movements in cephalopods. Nature,264(5586):572-574
[187]J. Casper and R.R. Murphy, "Human-Robot Interactions During the Robot-Assisted Urban Search and Rescue Response at the World trade Center", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol.33, No.3, June 2003, pp.367-385
[188]R. Cieslak and A. Morecki, "Elephant Trunk Type Elastic Manipulator-A Tool for Bulk and Liquid Type Materials Transportation", Robotica, Vol.17,1999, pp.11-16.
[189]M.W. Hannan and I.D. Walker, "Kinematics and the Implementation of an Elephant's Trunk Manipulatorand Other Continuum Style Robots", Journal of Robotic Systems,20(2),2003, pp.45-63.
[190]S. Hirose., "Biologically Inspired Robots", Oxford University Press,1993.
[191]G. Immega and K. Antonelli, "The KSI Tentacle Manipulator", Proceedings IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation, Nagoya, Japan,1995, pp.3149-3154.
[192]W. McMahan, B. Jones, I. Walker, V. Chitrakaran, A. Seshadri, and D. Dawson, "Robotic Manipulators Inspired by Cephalopod Limbs", Proceedings CDEN Design Conference, Montreal, Canada,2004, pp.1-10,2004.
[193]H. Mochiyama and H. Kobayashi, "The Shape Jacobian of a Manipulator with Hyper Degrees of Freedom", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Detroit,1999, pp.2837-2842.
[194]H. Ohno and S. Hirose,. "Design of Slim Slime Robot and its Gait of Locomotion", Proceedings 2001 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Maui, Hawaii,2001, pp.707-715.
[195]M.B Pritts and CD. Rahn, "Design of an Artificial Muscle Continuum Robot", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans,2004, pp. 4742-4746.
[196]N. Simaan, R. Taylor, and P. Flint, "A Dexterous System for Laryngeal Surgery", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans, 2004, pp.351-357.
[197]H. Tsukagoshi, A. Kitagawa, and M. Segawa, "Active Hose:an Artificial Elephant's Nose with Maneuverability for Rescue Operation", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Seoul, Korea,2001, pp.2454-2459.
[198]A. Wolf, H. B. Brown, R. Casciola, A. Costa, M. Schwerin, E. Shamas and H. Choset, "A mobile hyper redundant mechanism for search and rescue tasks," IEEE/RSJ Conf. Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp.2889-2995, Las Vegas, Nevada,2003.
[199]B. A. Jones, W. McMahan and I. D. Walker, "Design and analysis of a novel pneumatic manipulator," 3rd IFAC Symposium on Mechatronic Systems, Sydney, Australia, pp.745-750, Sept.2004.
[200]G. Chen, M. T. Pham, T. Redarce, C. Prelle and F. Lamarquem, "Design and modeling of a micro-robotic manipulator for colonoscopy," Proc.5th Int. Workshop on Research and Education in Mechatronics, Annecy, France, June 2005.
[201]W. McMahan, B.A. Jones and I. D. Walker, "Design and Implementation of a Multi-Section Continuum Robot:Air-Octor," IEEE/RSJ Conf. Intelligent Robots and Systems, Edmonton, Canada, pp.3345-3352,2005.
[202]W. McMahan, M. Pritts, V. Chitrakaran, D. Dienno, M. Grissom, B. Jones, M. Csencsits, C.D. Rahn, D. Dawson and I.D. Walker, "Field Trials and Testing of "OCTARM" Continuum Robots", IEEE Conf. Robotics and Automation, Orlando, FL, May 2006, pp. 2336-2341.
[203]J. Ayers, "Underwater walking," Arthropod Structure & Development, Vol.33, pp.347-360, 2004
[204]ATEX (Explosive Atmosphere) Directive:http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ sectors/mechanical/documents/guidance/atex/index_en.htm.
[205]P. Graziadei, "The nervous system of the arms," in Anatomy of the Nervous System of Octopus Vulgaris, pp.45-59, J. Z. Young ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford,1971.
[206]"Aspects of the biology and welfare of animals used for experimental and other scientific purpose," Scientific Annex EFSA Journal, Vol.292, pp.1-136,2005.
[207]. G. Chapman, "The hydrostatic skeleton in the invertebrates":Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 33,338-371,1958.
[208]K.K. Smith and W.M.Kier, "Trunks, tongues and tentacles:moving with skeletons of muscle," Amer. Sci.77,28-35,1989.
[209]J. Van Humbeeck, and Jan Cederstrom, "The Present State of Shape Memory Materials and Barriers Still to be Overcome," Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies (SMST-94),7-10 March 1994, Asilomar Conference Center, Pacific Grove, California, USA, SMST, Santa Clara, CA,1994, pp. 1-6.5.
[210]Uekull, J. (1905) Leitfaden in das Studium der Experimentellen Biologie der Wassertiere. Wiesbaden, Bergmann
[211]Tinbergen, L. (1939) Zur Fortpflanzungsethologie von Sepia officinalis L. Archives Neerlandaises de Zoologie 3,323-364
[212]Sutherland, N. S.(1960)., Theories of shape discrimination in Octopus. Nature 186,840-844
[213]Sutherland, N. S. (1969)., Shape discrimination in rat, octopus and goldfish:a comparative study. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 67,160-176.
[214]Rokni, D.,& Hochner, B. (2002) Ionic Currents Underlying Fast Action Potentials in the Obliquely Striated Muscle Cells of the Octopus Arm. J Neurophysiol 88:3386-3397.
[215]Ross, D., M. (1971) Protection of hermit crabs (Dardanus spp.) from octopus by commensal sea anemones (Calliactis spp.). Nature 230,401-401
[216]Polimanti, O. (1910). Les cephalopodes ont-ils une memoire? Archives de Psychologie Geneve 10,84-87
[217]Naef, A. (1923) Die Cephalopoden. R. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin
[218]Matzner H, Gutfreund Y, Hochner B (2000) Neuromuscular System of the Flexible Arm of the Octopus:Physiological Characterization. J Neurophysiol 83:1315-1328
[219]Hanlon, R.T., Turk, P.E., Lee, P.G.& Yang, W.T. (1987). Laboratory rearing of the squid Loligo pealei to the juvenile stage:growth comparisons with fishery data. Fishery Bulletin 85,163-167
[220]Girod, P. (1884) Recherches sur la peau des ce'phalopodes. La ventouse. Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen.2:379-401
[221]Crancher, P., King, M.G., Bennet, A.& Montgomery, R.B. (1972). Conditioning of a free operant in Octopus cyanea Gray. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour 17, 359-362
[222]Maldonado, H. (1968). Effect of electroconvulsive shock on memory in Octopus vulgaris. Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Physiologie 59,25-37.
[223]Y. Bar-Cohen,2nd Edition, SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering, pp. 73-89,2004.
[224]Pons, J.L.:Emerging Actuator Technologies:A Micromechatronic Approach. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester (2005)
[225]Funakubo H 1987Shape Memory Alloys(New York:Gordon and Breach)
[226]Muntz, W., R., A. (1962). Stimulus generalisation following monocular training in Octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 55,535-540
[227]Chou C and Hannaford B 1996 Measurement and modelling of McKibben pneumatic artificial musclesIEEE Trans. Robot. Autom.1290-102
[228]Sun S, Rajapakse RKND. Simulation of pseudoelastic behaviour of SMA under cyclic loading. Comput Mater Sci 2003;28:663-74.
[229]Seelecke S. Modeling the dynamic behavior of shape memory alloys. Int J Non-linear Mech 2002;37(8):1363-74.
[230]Collet M, Folte te E, Lexcellent C. Analysis of the behavior of a shape memory alloy beam under dynamical loading. Eur J Mech A-Solids 2001;20:615-30.
[231]Vogel, S.1984. Drag and flexibility in sessile organisms. Am. Zool.24:37-44.
[232]Roark, R. J.1943. Formulas for Stress and Strain,2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
[233]Denny, M. W.1988. Biology and the Mechanics of the Wave-swept Environment. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
[234]Baumgart F. (2000). "Stiffness -an unknown world of mechanical science?". Injury (Elsevier) 31. doi:10.1016/S0020-1383(00)80040-6. Retrieved 2012-05-04.
[235]L3 Deflection of a Horizontal Beam:Boundary Value Problems. http://www2.sjs.org/friedman/PDE/course/L3.pdf. Accessed:30th April,2014.
[236]SAES Getters Group (2013). Smartflex Springs.,"Shape Memory Springs for Actuators"www.saesgetters.com:Accessed:February 6th,2013
[2]Harvard University:"Embedded Pneumatic Networks (EPN)". Whitesides Group Research; 2012:Accessed:April 2013 http://gmwgroup.harvard.edu/research/index.php?page=23
[3]Journal of Humanoid Robotics:"Service and Entertainment Robots 2012":Accessed:April 2013 http:\\www.inl.gov/adaptiverobotics/humanoidrobotics/leggedlocomotion.shtml:
[4]Toi, Y., Lee, J.B, and Taya, M. (2004). "Finite element analysis of superelastic, large deformation behavior of shape memory alloy helical springs" Comput. Struct.821685-93
[5]Budiansky, B., Hutchinson J. W. and Evans, A. G. (1986). "Matrix fracture in fiber-reinforced ceramics". J.Mech. Phys. Solids 34 167-89
[6]Wolfram Research, Inc.,1991 "Mathematica, Version 2.0" (Wolfram Research, Inc., Champaign, Illinois)
[7]Tanaka, K., and Nagaki, S. (1982). "A thermomechanical description of materials with internal variables in the process of phase Transitions", Ing.-Arch.51287-99
[8]Michael. O. Obaji., Shiwu Zhang. "Investigation into the Force Distribution Mechanism of a Soft Robot Gripper Modeled for Picking Complex Objects Using Shape Memory Alloy Actuators". Proceedings of the IEEE Int'l Conference on Cybernetics, Intelligent Systems and Robotics, Automation & Mechatronics (CIS-RAM), Manila Philippines, Nov.11-16,2013, P.7. ISBN:978-1-4799-1198-1
[9]Love, A. E. H., (1994). "A treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity", New York; Dover
[10]Aguiar, R. A. A., Savi, M. A, and Pacheco, P. M. C. L.2010:"Experimental and numerical investigations of shape memory alloy helical springs", Smart Mater. Struct.19025008
[11]Online Journal on production of silicone elastomers. Accessed; April 2013 http://www.silicone.jp/e/catalog/pdf/rubber_e.pdf
[12]Richard.G. Budynas., J. Keith Nisbett. "Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw Hill Higher Education; 9th revised edition, January 1,2011
[13]Online Journal:"How to Build a Robot Octopus". Accessed October 11,2013 http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-to-build-a-robot-octopus
[14]Online Journal:"Facts about Octopuses". Accessed October 9th,2013 http://animals.about.com/od/molluscs/a/octopus-facts.htm
[15]Michael O. Obaji., Shiwu Zhang. "A Comprehensive Analysis of the Effects of Stiffness along Octopus Robot Arm Modeled with Shape Memory Alloy Actuators". Journal of Field Robotics (Under Review, SCI, El,2014)
[16]McNichols, J. L Jr., and Cory, J.S. (1987). "Thermodynamics of nitinol", J. Appl Phys.61 972-84.
[17]Perkins, I.1975:Shape Memory Effects in Alloys (New York Plenum)
[18]Buehler, W. J and Wiley, R. C. (1965). "Nickel-base alloys", U.S Patent 3174 P851
[19]Boyd, J. G and Lagoudas, D. C. (1996). "A thermodynamic constitutive model for the shape memory alloy materials. Part I:The monolithic shape memory alloy", Int. J. Plast.12 805-42
[20]Artificial muscles:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Muscle; Accessed:December 21st 2013.
[21]Y. Hayakawa, S. Kawamura. "Sensing Actuators Using a Pneumatic Bellows System and its Application to a Soft Gripper"., International Conference on Robotics and Automation; Atlanta Georgia, USA. May 1993
[22]Yoshikawa, Shoko., Shrout, Thomas. (1993):"Multilayer Piezoelectric actuator-Structures & reliability", Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conf,34th & AIAA/ASME Adaptive Structures Forum, La Jolla, CA., Tech Papers. Pt.6 (A9333876 1339), p. 3581-3586
[23]Bayraktaroglu, Z.Y., Kilicarslan, A.& Kuzucu, A. (2006):"Design and Control of Biologically Inspired Wheel-less Snake-like Robot". Proc.1st IEEE/RAS-EMBS Int. Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BIOROB'06), pp.1001-1006.
[24]Braganza, D., Dawson, D.M., Walker, I.D., Nath, N. (2006), "Neural network grasping controller for continuum robots.45th IEEE Int'l Conference on Decision and Control, San Diego:IEEE,6445-6449.
[25]Burdick, J.W., Radford, J.& Chirikjian, G.S. (1993). "A'side-winding'locomotion gait for hyper-redundant robots"., Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp.101-106
[26]Gravagne, I.A., Walker, I.D. (2002). "Manipulability, Force, and Compliance Analysis for Planar Continuum Manipulators", IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, Vol.18, N3
[27]Ido, Zelman., Yoram, Yekutieli. "Kinematics of Octopus Arm Movements":The Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, OCTOPUS Consortium Meeting, FORTH, April 2009
[28]Katherine, Harmon Courage "Octopus! The Most Mysterious Creature in the Sea":8 Amazing Octopus Abilities (Current Hardcover, October 2013).
[29]Brinson, L. C., (1993) "One-dimensional constitutive behavior of shape memory alloys: thermo-mechanical derivation with non-constant material functions and redefined martensite internal variable", J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.4229-42
[30]Liang, C., and Rogers, C. A. (1997). "Design of shape memory alloy springs with applications in vibration control. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.8314-22
[31]Fremond, M., (1987). Materiaux a memoire de forme C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris 34 239-44
[32]Fremond, M., (1996). "Shape memory alloy:A Thermo-mechanical Macroscopic Theory", CISM Courses and Lectures (Berlin:Springer)
[33]Savi, M. A., Paiva, A., Baeta-Neves, A. P., and Pacheco, P.M.C.L. (2002). "Phenomenological modeling and numerical simulation of shape memory alloys:a thermo-plastic-phase transformation coupled model". J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.13261-73
[34]Baeta-Neves, A.P., Savi, M. A., and Pacheco, P. M. C.L. (2004). "On the Fremond's constitutive model for shape memory alloys":Mech. Res. Commun.31677-88
[35]Morgan, N.B., (2004). "Medical shape memory alloy applications-the market and its products":Mater. Sci. Eng. A 37816-23
[36]Haetl, D. J and Lagoudas, D.C., (2007). "Aerospace applications of shape memory alloys", Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. G 221535-52 (special issue)
[37]Webb, G., Wilson, L., Lagoudas, D. C., and Rediniotis, O. (2000) "Adaptive control of shape memory alloy actuators for underwater biomimetic applications", AIAA J.38325-34
[38]Otsuka, K., and Wayman, C. M (ed). (1999):Shape Memory Materials (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
[39]Cho, K. J., Koh, J. S., Kim, S., Chu, W. S., Hong, Y., and Ahn, H. (2009). "Review of manufacturing processes".
[40]Y. Nakano., M. Fujie., and Y. Hosada, "Hitachi's Robot Hand," Robotics Age, vol.6, no.7, July 1984, pp.18-20
[41]Joseph, E. Shigley., and Charles, R. Mischke. "Mechanical Engineering Design",5th Edition, McGraw Hill,1989, P.123
[42]R.C. Juvinall., and K.M. Marshek. "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design,2nd Edition", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,1991, p.427-452
[43]T. Waram., "Design Principles for Ni-Ti Actuators," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.234-244.
[44]T. C. Waram., "Actuator Design Using Shape Memory Alloys,2nd Edition", Hamilton, Ontario,1993
[45]T.W. Duerig., and G.R. Zadno. "An Engineer's Perspective of Pseudo-elasticity". Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London, 1990, pp.369-393
[46]Y. Suzuki, and H. Tamura. "Fatigue Properties of Ni-Ti Shape Memory Alloys," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp. 256-266.
[47]K. Otsuka., "Introduction to the R-Phase Transition," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.36-45.
[48]T.W. Duerig., and C. M. Wayman, "An Introduction to Martensite and Shape Memory," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London, 1990, pp.3-20.
[49]J. Perkins, and D. Hodgson, "The Two Way Shape Memory Effect," Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, London,1990, pp.195-206.
[50]Jorma, Ryhanen (Ph.D). "Biocompatibility Evaluation of Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Metal Alloy", Thesis, Oulu University, Finland, (1999), Available in PDF format online at: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn 9514252217/:Accessed 29/08/2013
[51]Free Encyclopedia:"Elastomer":http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomer:Accessed January 1, 2014
[52]Stockwell Elastomerics:"Silicone Sponge and Silicone Rubber Gaskets, Seals, Cushions, and Material", http://www.stockwell.com/data-sheets/silicone-materials-guide.pdf:Accessed January 1,2014
[53]Kluessendorf, J.; Doyle, P. (2000). "Pohlsepia Mazonensis, an Early'Octopus'from the Carboniferous of Illinois, USA". Palaeontology 43 (5):919. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00155. edit
[54]University of Melbourne. "Tentacles of venom:new study reveals all octopuses are venomous", Media Release, Wednesday 15 April 2009
[55]Norman, M. (2000). "Cephalopods:A World Guide". ConchBooks, Hackenheim. p.15. ISBN 978-3-925919-32-9
[56]Eyers, Nadia. "Tales from the Cryptic:The Common Atlantic Octopus":Southeastern Regional Taxonomic Center. Retrieved 2006-07-27
[57]Norman, M.D., Finn, J., Tregenza, T. (September 2001). "Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus":Proceedings of the Royal Society 268 (1478):1755-8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708. PMC 1088805. PMID 11522192. Accessed:January 1,2014
[58]Norman, M.D. (2005). "The "Mimic Octopus" (Thaumoctopus mimicus n. gen. et sp.), a new octopus from the tropical Indo-West Pacific (Cephalopoda:Octopodidae)". Molluscan Research 25:57-70.
[59]Young, R.E., M. Vecchione., and K.M. Mangold. (1999). "Cephalopoda Glossary":Tree of Life web project
[60]Kawamura, G. et al. (2001). "Color Discrimination Conditioning in Two Octopus Octopus aegina and O. vulgaris". Nippon Suisan Gakkashi 67 (1):35-39.
[61]Wells, Martin John. "Octopus:physiology and behaviour of an advanced invertebrate", London:Chapman and Hall; New York:distributed in the U.S.A. by Halsted Press,1978.
[62]Matt Walker (15 June 2009). "The cephalopods can hear you". BBC. Retrieved 2013-07-19
[63]C.L. Huffard., (2006). "Locomotion by Abdopus aculeatus"
[64]Huffard, C. L., Boneka, F., Full, R.J (2005). "Underwater Bipedal Locomotion by Octopuses in Disguise":Science 307 (5717):1927. doi:10.1126/science.1109616. PMID 15790846. Accessed:January 1,2014
[65]O'Shea, S. (2002). "Haliphron atlanticus:-a giant gelatinous octopus":Biodiversity Update 5: 1.
[66]Norman, M. (2000). "Cephalopods:A World Guide". ConchBooks, Hackenheim. p.214
[67]High, W.L. (1976). "The giant Pacific octopus":U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Marine Fisheries Review 38 (9):17-22.
[68]Online Etymological Dictionary:octopus (Retrieved 19 July 2013)
[69]Octopus. Dictionary.com:"Collins English Dictionary-Complete & Unabridged,10th Edition". HarperCollins Publishers http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/octopus: Accessed:July 19,2013
[70]Octopus. Dictionary.com:"Dictionary.com Unabridged". Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/octopus:Accessed:July 19,2013
[71]Henry, George Liddell., Robert Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon":οκτωπουζ (Retrieved 19 July 2013)
[72]Henry, George Liddell., Robert Scott. "Oktapous":A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
[73]Jershow, P. "Silicone Elastomers":Wacker-Chemie GmbH Published:2002
[74]Roux, Marie Ange. (2007). "Processing pharmaceutical polymers". Pharmaceutical Polymers, 2007:Smithers Rapra. p.28 ISBN 9781847350176
[75]Shin Etsu. "Characteristic Properties of Silicone Rubber Compounds":Accessed:January 2, 2014. http://www.silicone.jp/e/catalog/pdf/rubber_e.pdf
[76]The Free Library:"Overview of silicone rubber materials". http://www.thefreelibrary.com/An+overview+of+silicone+rubber.-a0105557239:Accessed: January 1,2014
[77]Timcorubber:"Silicone rubber properties" http://www.timcorubber.com/rubber-materials/silicone.htm:Accessed:January 1,2014
[78]Keller et al., "A Self-Healing Poly (dimethyl siloxane) Elastomer"; Advanced Functional Materials, v.17, p.2399-2404 (2007).
[79]Keller et al., "Torsion Fatigue Response of Self-Healing Poly (dimethyl siloxane) Elastomers"; Polymer, v.49 p.3136-3145 (2008).
[80]Brydson, John (1999) "Plastics Materials"; Butterworth,9th Ed
[81]Lewis, P.R., Reynolds, K and Gagg, C (2004) "Forensic Materials Engineering:Case Studies", CRC Press.
[82]G. Robinson & J.B.C. Davies, "Continuum Robots-A State of the Art," IEEE Conf. Robotics and Automation, pp.2849-2854, Detroit, MI, May 1999.
[83]G. Chen, M. T. Pham, T. Redarce, C. Prelle and F. Lamarquem, "Design and modeling of a micro-robotic manipulator for colonoscopy," Proc.5th Int. Workshop on Research and Education in Mechatronics, Annecy, France, June 2005
[84]D. Trivedi, C.D. Rahn, W.M. Kier and I.D. Walker, "Soft Robotics:Biological Inspiration, State of the Art, and Future Research", Applied Bionics and Biomechanics, Vol.5, No.2, September 2008, pp.99-117.
[85]R. Cieslak and A. Morecki, "Elephant trunk type elastic manipulator-a tool for bulk and liquid type materials transportation," Robotica, Vol.17, pp.11-16,1999.
[86]P. Arena., C. Bonomo., L. Fortuna., M. Frasca and S. Graziani, "Design and control of an IPMC wormlike robot," IEEE Trans, on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, part B,Vol.36, No. 5,2006
[87]W. M. Kier and K. K. Smith, "Tongues, Tentacles, and Trunks:The Biomechanics of Movement in Muscular-hydrostats", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol.83, pp. 307-324,1985
[88]J. F. V. Vincent Stealing ideas from nature. "Deployable Structures":Edited by S. Pellegrino, Vienna:Springer, pp.51-58,2005
[89]B. Webb., T. Consi., "Biorobotics:Methods and Applications", MIT Press,2001
[90]P. Dario., M.C. Carrozza., E. Guglielmelli., C. Laschi., A. Menciassi., S. Micera, F. Vecchi, "Robotics as a "Future and Emerging Technology":biomimetics, cybernetics and neuro-robotics in European projects", IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine, Vol.12, No.2, June 2005, pp.29-43.
[91]L. Manfredi., E.S. Maini., C. Laschi., P. Dario., B. Girard., N. Tabareau., A. Berthoz., "Implementation of a neurophysiological model of saccadic eye movements on an anthropomorphic robotic head", IEEE International Conference Humanoids 2006, Genova, Italy,4-6 December,2006.
[92]B. Hochner., E. R. Brown., M. Langella., T. Shomrat., G. Fiorito., "A Learning and Memory Area in the Octopus Brain Manifests a Vertebrate-Like Long-Term Potentiation", J Neurophysio190:3547-3554,2003.
[93]B. Hochner, T. Shomrat, G. Fiorito, "The Octopus:A Model for a Comparative Analysis of the Evolution of Learning and Memory Mechanisms", Biol. Bull.210:308-317,2006.
[94]G. Sumbre., Y. Gutfreund., G. Fiorito., T. Flash., B. Hochner "Control of Octopus Arm Extension by a Peripheral Motor Program", Science, Vol.293,7 September 2001.
[95]Y. Yekutieli., G. Sumbre., T. Flash., B. Hochner, "How to move with no rigid skeleton":The octopus has the answers". Biologist,49 (6),2002
[96]Y. Yekutieli., R. Sagiv-Zohar., R. Aharonov., Y. Engel., B. Hochner., T. Flash., "Dynamic Model of the Octopus Arm:Biomechanics of the Octopus Reaching Movement", J Neurophysiol94:1443-1458,2005.
[97]G. Sumbre., G. Fiorito., T. Flash., B. Hochner "Octopuses Use a Human-like Strategy to Control Precise Point-to-Point Arm Movements", Current Biology,16,767-772, April 18, 2006
[98]Y. Gutfreund., T. Flash., Y. Yarom., G. Fiorito., I. Segev., "Organization of octopus arm movements:a model system for Studying the Control of Flexible Arms," J. Neurosci.16, 7297-7307,1996
[99]G. Sumbre., Y. Gutfreund., G. Fiorito.,T. Flash., B. Hochner., "Control of octopus arm extension by a peripheral motor program," Science 293,1845-1848,2001.
[100]Y. Gutfreund., T. Flash., G. Fiorito., and B. Hochner., "Patterns of muscle activation involved in octopus reaching movements,", J. Neurosci.18,5976-5987,1998
[101]G. Sumbre, G. Fiorito, T. Flash, B. Hochner, "Neurobiology:Motor control of flexible octopus arms", Nature 433,595-596,2005.
[102]B. Tuller., M.T. Turvey., and H.L. Fitch., "The Bernstein perspective:II. The concept of muscle linkage or coordinative structure," InJ. A. S. Kelso (ed.) Human Motor Behavior: An Introduction, Erlbaum, NJ,1982.
[103]Subrata Ghoshal. (2009) "Embedded Systems & Robots:Projects Using the 8051 Microcontroller", ISBN:9789814272896.
[104]Stiffness:Online Journal:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffness. Accessed:January 9,2014
[105]TAP 228-4:"Measuring the stiffness of materials". Online Journal: tap.iop.org/mechanics/materials/file_39558.do Accessed:January 9,2014
[106]Preethi Manuel:Online Journal 16th August2010 http://suite101.com/article/apples-and-pears-a-very-english-harvest-a276932...Prethi. Accessed:April 5th,2013
[107]Falcioni, John G. "Shape Memory Alloys." Mechanical Engineering Apr.1992:114.
[108]Kauffman, George, and Isaac Mayo. "Memory Metal." Chem. Matters Oct.1993:4-7.
[109]Rogers, Craig. "Intelligent Materials". Scientific American Sept.1995:154-157.
[110]Stoeckel, Dieter, and Weikang Yu. "Superelastic Nickel-Titanium Wires." Available from Ray chem Corporation, Menlo Park, CA.
[111]Kauffman, G. B. and Mayo, I. Chemistry and History:The Story of Nitinol:The Serendipitous Discovery of the Memory Metal and Its Applications
[112]R.G. Gilbertson,3rd Edition, Muscle Wires Project Book, Mondo-tronics, Inc., San Anselmo, CA.,1994.9..
[113]R.C. Juvinall, and K.M. Marshek,2nd Edition, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,1991, p.427-452.
[114]Newton's Laws and the Electrical Force:Online Journal on "Static Electricity": http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/u813d Accessed:February 5,2014
[115]Modern Grinding (2014)., "Nitinol Manufacturing" by WordPress: http://www.nitinols.com/nitinol-k-wire/:Accessed February 4th,2014.
[116]W.J. Buehler, J.W. Gilfrich & R.C. Wiley, "Effects of low-temperature phase changes on the mechanical properties of alloys near composition TiNi," Journal of Applied Physics 34 (1963) p 475. doi:10.1063/1.1729603
[117]F.E. Wang, W.J. Buehler & S.J. Pickart, "Crystal structure and a unique martensitic transition of TiNi," Journal of Applied Physics 36 (1965) p 3232-3239
[118]Lagoudas D C 2008 Shape Memory Alloys (New York:Springer Science and Business Media, LLC)
[119]C.B. Churchill, J.A. Shaw, and M.A. Iadicola (2009)., "Tips and Tricks for Characterizing Shape Memory Alloy Wire"; Society for Experimental Mechanics; doi: 10.1111/j.1747-1567.2008.00460.x
[120]Shaw, J.A., and Kyriakides, S., "On the Nucleation and Propagation of Phase Transformation Fronts in a NiTi Alloy,"Acta Materialia 45(2):683-700 (1997,
[121]. Shaw, J.A., and Kyriakides, S., "Thermomechanical Aspects of NiTi,"Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 43(8):1243-1281 (1995).
[122]Chou, C and Hannaford, B; (1996)., "Measurement and modelling of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles". IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom.1290-102
[123]O'Halloran A and O'Malley F (2004)., Materials and technologies for artificial muscle:a review for the mechatronic muscle project Topics in Bio-Mechanical Engineeringed P J Prendergast and P E McHugh pp 184-215
[124]Baughman, R H (1996)., Conducting polymer artificial muscles Synth. Met.78339-53
[125]Kingsley, D; Quinn, R and Ritzmann, R; (2003)., "A cockroach inspired robot with artificial muscles"; Int. Symp. on Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines (Kyoto, Japan, AMAM 2003)
[126]T. Speeter, "Primitive Based Control of the MIT/Utah Hand", Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. on Robotics and Automation,1991, pp.866-875.
[127]B. Hoff, M. A. Arbib, "Models of Trajectory Formation and Temporal Interaction of Reach and Grasp," Journal of Motor Behavior, September 1993, vol 25, no.3, pp.175-192
[128]E. Oztop, N. S. Bradley and M. A. Arbib, "Infant grasp learning:A computational model," Experimental Brain Research. October 2004. vol.158, no.4, pp.1432-1106
[129]M. Csencsits, B.A. Jones, W. McMahan, V. Iyengar, and I.D. Walker, "User Interfaces for Continuum Robot Arms", Proc. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Edmonton, Canada, August 2005, pp.3011-3018
[130]M. T. Turvey and C. Carello. "Dynamics of Bernstein's level of synergies". In M.L. Latash & M. T. Turvey (Eds.) "Dexterity and its Development". Mahwah, NY:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.1996. pp.339-376.
[131]H. Funakabo, ed. translated from Japanese by J.B. Kennedy, Shape Memory Alloys, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Holland,1987.
[132]W. McMahan, V. Chitrakaran, M. Csencsits, D. Dawson, I.D. Walker, B. Jones, M. Pritts, D. Dienno, M. Grissom and C.D Rahn, "Field Trials and Testing of the OctArm Continuum Manipulator", Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. on Robotics, and Automation; Orlando, FL,2006, pp 2336-2341
[133]W. McMahan, Continuum Manipulators:Air-Octor and Synergy-Based Operation, M.S. Thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, December 2000
[134]N. Bernstein, The Coordination and Regulation of Movement, Pergomon Press, London, 1967
[135]B. Tuller, M.T., Turvey, and H. L. Fitch, "The Bernstein perspective:II. The concept of muscle linkage or coordinative structure," In J. A. S. Kelso (ed.) Human Motor Behavior:An Introduction, Erlbaum, NJ,1982
[136]I. D. Walker, D. Dawson, T. Flash, F. Grasso, R. Hanlon, B. Hochner, W. Kier, C. Pagano, C. Rahn, and Q. Zhang, "Continuum Robot Arms Inspired by Cephalopods", SPIE Intl. Society for Optical Engineering Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 2005. pp.303-314.
[137]Young's Modulus Jaycen Herndon Partners:Skyler Johnson and Dan Stine Danville Area Community College PHYS 107; October 16,2009
[138]Abbott, N.J., Williamson R., and Maddock L. (1995) Cephalopod Neurobiology. Oxford Science Publications.
[139]Agin V., Poirier R., Chichery R., Dickel L.& Chichery M.-P. (2006a) Development of multimemory stages in the cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,86,264-269
[140]Brooks, W.R. (1988). The influence of the location and abundance of the sea anemone Calliactis tricolor (Le Sueur) in protecting hermit crabs from octopus predators. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 116,15-21
[141]Boycott, B.B. (1954). Learning in Octopus vulgaris and other cephalopods. Pubbl. zool. Napoli 25,67-93
[142]Cousteau, J.Y.,& Diole, P. (1973). Octopus and Squid:The Soft Intelligence. London, Cassell Dilly, N., Nixon, M.& Packard A. (1964) Forces exerted by Octopus vulgaris. Pubbl. Staz. Staz. Napoli 34,86-97
[143]Fiorito, G., Biederman, G. B.& Gherardi, F. (1998). The role of stimulus preexposure in problem solving by Octopus vulgaris. Anim. Cogn.1,107-112
[144]Graziadei, P., (1965) Muscle receptor in cephalopods. Proc. Roy. Soc. B.,161:392-402.
[145]Graziadei, P., (1971) The nervous system of the arms. In:The Anatomy of the Nervous System of Octopus vulgaris (Young JZ, ed), p 45-61. Oxford: Clarendon Press
[146]M. Pietrzakowski, Dynamics of thermally activated shape memory alloy reinforced laminated beams, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics 4(36) (1998) 879-893.
[147]Kuba, M., J., Zullo, L., Byrne, R., A.,& Hochner B. (2006) Visual Habituation in the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) Geologica-Acta Universitas Cariolinae.49:147-150
[148]Gutfreund, Y., Matzner, H., Flash, T., Hochner, B. (2006) Patterns of Motor Activity in the Isolated Nerve Cord of the Octopus Arm. Biol Bull 211:212-222
[149]Josephson, R. K.1(975)., "Extensive and intensive factors determining the performance of striated muscle". J. Exp. Zool.194,135-154
[150]Kuba, M., J., Byrne, R., A., Meisel, D., V.,& Mather J., A. (2006) When do octopuses play? The effect of repeated testing, age and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris. J Comp Psychol.120(3),184-190
[151]Kuhn, A. (1950). Uber Farbwechsel und Farbensinn von Cephalopoden. Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Physiologie 32,572-598
[152]Kier, W.M. (1982) The functional morphology of the musculature of squid (Loliginidae) arms and tentacles. J Morphol 172:179-192
[153]Kier, W., M. (1985) The musculature of squid arms and tentacles:ultrastructural evidence for functional differences. J. Morphol.185,223-239
[154]Kier, W., M. (1988) The arrangement and function of molluscan muscle. In:The Mollusca (Wilbure K., M., ed). San Diego:Academic Press
[155]Kier, W., M.& Stella, M., P. (2007) The arrangement and function of octopus arm musculature and connective tissue. J Morphol 268:831-843
[156]Mackintosh, N.J. (1965). Discrimination learning in the Octopus. Animal Behaviour, Suppl. 1,129-134
[157]Mackintosh, N.J. (1974). The Psychology of Animal Learning. London, Academic Press
[158]Mackintosh, N.J. (1983). Conditioning and Associative Learning. Oxford, Clarendo
[159]Mather, J.A. (1984). Development of behaviour in Octopus joubini Robson,1929. Vie et Milieu 34,17-20
[160]Mather, J.A. (1995). Cognition in cephalopods. Advances in the Study of Behavior 24, 317-353
[161]Messenger, J. B. (1970). Optomotor responses and nystagmus in intact, blinded and statocystless cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis L.). Journal of Experimental Biology 53,789-796
[162]Messenger, J. B. (1973). Learning in the cuttlefish, Sepia. Animal Behaviour 21,801-826
[163]Messenger, J. B. (1983) Multimodal convergence and the regulation of motor programs incephalopods. Fortschritte der Zoologie,28:77-98
[164]Mikhailoff, S. (1920). Experiences reflexologiques. Experiences nouvelles sur Eledone moschata. Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique (Monaco) 398,1-11
[165]Nixon, M.& Dilly, P., N, (1977) Sucker surfaces and prey capture. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 38:447-511
[166]Nixon, M.& Young, J., Z. (2003) The Brains and Lives of Cephalopods. Oxford University Press
[167]Offer, G. (1987) Myosin filaments. In Fibrous protein structure (ed. J. M. Squire & P. J. Vibert), pp.307 356. London:Academic Press
[168]Parker, (1921) The power of adhesion in the suckers of Octopus bimaculatus Verill. J. exp. Zoology 33,391-394
[169]Pieron, H. (1911). Contribution a la psychologie du poulpe. Bulletin de l'Institut general psychologique 11,111-119
[170]Robertson, J., D. (1994). Cytochalisin D blocks touch learning in Octopus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 258,61-66
[171]Robertson, J., D., Bonaventura, J.& Kohm, A., P. (1994). Nitric oxide is required for tactile learning in Octopus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 256, 269-273
[172]Schiller, P. H (1949) Delayed detour response in the octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 42,220-225
[173]M. Pietrzakowski, Natural frequency modification of thermally activated composite plates, Meccanica 1 (2000) 313-320
[174]Van Leeuwen, J. L.& Spoor, C., W. (1992) Modelling mechanically stable muscle architectures. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B336,275-292
[175]Van Leeuwen, J., L. (1991) Optimum power output and structural design of sarcomeres. J. Theor. Biol.149,229-256.
[176]Van Leeuwen, J., L.& Kier W., M. (1997) Functional design of tentacles in squid:linking sarcomere ultrastructure to gross morphological dynamics. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 352, 551-571
[177]Walker, J., J., Longo, N.& Bitterman, M., E. (1970). The octopus in the laboratory: handling, maintenance, and training. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation 2, 15-18
[178]Wells, M. J. (1958) Factors affecting reactions to Mysis by newly hatched Sepia. Behaviour 13,96-111.
[179]Wells, M.J. (1959) Functional evidence for neuron fields representing the individual arms within the central nervous system of Octopus. Journal of Experimental Biology 36,501-511
[180]Wells, M., J. (1962a) Brain and Behaviour in Cephalopods. London, Heinemann
[181]Wells, M., J. (1962b) Early learning in Sepia. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 8,149-169
[182]Wells, M., J. (1964) Detour experiments with octopus. Journal of Experimental Biology 41, 621-642
[183]Wells, M., J. (1967) Short-term learning and interocular transfer in detour experiments with octopuses. Journal of Experimental Biology 47,393-408
[184]Yekutieli, Y., Mitelman, R., Hochner, B.,& Flash T (2007) Analyzing octopus movements using three dimensional reconstruction. J Neurophysiol:00739.02006
[185]Young, J., Z. (1971) The anatomy of the nervous system of Octopus vulgaris. Claredon Press Oxford
[186]Young, J. Z. (1976) "The'cerebellum'and the control of eye movements in cephalopods. Nature,264(5586):572-574
[187]J. Casper and R.R. Murphy, "Human-Robot Interactions During the Robot-Assisted Urban Search and Rescue Response at the World trade Center", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol.33, No.3, June 2003, pp.367-385
[188]R. Cieslak and A. Morecki, "Elephant Trunk Type Elastic Manipulator-A Tool for Bulk and Liquid Type Materials Transportation", Robotica, Vol.17,1999, pp.11-16.
[189]M.W. Hannan and I.D. Walker, "Kinematics and the Implementation of an Elephant's Trunk Manipulatorand Other Continuum Style Robots", Journal of Robotic Systems,20(2),2003, pp.45-63.
[190]S. Hirose., "Biologically Inspired Robots", Oxford University Press,1993.
[191]G. Immega and K. Antonelli, "The KSI Tentacle Manipulator", Proceedings IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation, Nagoya, Japan,1995, pp.3149-3154.
[192]W. McMahan, B. Jones, I. Walker, V. Chitrakaran, A. Seshadri, and D. Dawson, "Robotic Manipulators Inspired by Cephalopod Limbs", Proceedings CDEN Design Conference, Montreal, Canada,2004, pp.1-10,2004.
[193]H. Mochiyama and H. Kobayashi, "The Shape Jacobian of a Manipulator with Hyper Degrees of Freedom", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Detroit,1999, pp.2837-2842.
[194]H. Ohno and S. Hirose,. "Design of Slim Slime Robot and its Gait of Locomotion", Proceedings 2001 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Maui, Hawaii,2001, pp.707-715.
[195]M.B Pritts and CD. Rahn, "Design of an Artificial Muscle Continuum Robot", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans,2004, pp. 4742-4746.
[196]N. Simaan, R. Taylor, and P. Flint, "A Dexterous System for Laryngeal Surgery", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans, 2004, pp.351-357.
[197]H. Tsukagoshi, A. Kitagawa, and M. Segawa, "Active Hose:an Artificial Elephant's Nose with Maneuverability for Rescue Operation", Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Seoul, Korea,2001, pp.2454-2459.
[198]A. Wolf, H. B. Brown, R. Casciola, A. Costa, M. Schwerin, E. Shamas and H. Choset, "A mobile hyper redundant mechanism for search and rescue tasks," IEEE/RSJ Conf. Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp.2889-2995, Las Vegas, Nevada,2003.
[199]B. A. Jones, W. McMahan and I. D. Walker, "Design and analysis of a novel pneumatic manipulator," 3rd IFAC Symposium on Mechatronic Systems, Sydney, Australia, pp.745-750, Sept.2004.
[200]G. Chen, M. T. Pham, T. Redarce, C. Prelle and F. Lamarquem, "Design and modeling of a micro-robotic manipulator for colonoscopy," Proc.5th Int. Workshop on Research and Education in Mechatronics, Annecy, France, June 2005.
[201]W. McMahan, B.A. Jones and I. D. Walker, "Design and Implementation of a Multi-Section Continuum Robot:Air-Octor," IEEE/RSJ Conf. Intelligent Robots and Systems, Edmonton, Canada, pp.3345-3352,2005.
[202]W. McMahan, M. Pritts, V. Chitrakaran, D. Dienno, M. Grissom, B. Jones, M. Csencsits, C.D. Rahn, D. Dawson and I.D. Walker, "Field Trials and Testing of "OCTARM" Continuum Robots", IEEE Conf. Robotics and Automation, Orlando, FL, May 2006, pp. 2336-2341.
[203]J. Ayers, "Underwater walking," Arthropod Structure & Development, Vol.33, pp.347-360, 2004
[204]ATEX (Explosive Atmosphere) Directive:http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ sectors/mechanical/documents/guidance/atex/index_en.htm.
[205]P. Graziadei, "The nervous system of the arms," in Anatomy of the Nervous System of Octopus Vulgaris, pp.45-59, J. Z. Young ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford,1971.
[206]"Aspects of the biology and welfare of animals used for experimental and other scientific purpose," Scientific Annex EFSA Journal, Vol.292, pp.1-136,2005.
[207]. G. Chapman, "The hydrostatic skeleton in the invertebrates":Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 33,338-371,1958.
[208]K.K. Smith and W.M.Kier, "Trunks, tongues and tentacles:moving with skeletons of muscle," Amer. Sci.77,28-35,1989.
[209]J. Van Humbeeck, and Jan Cederstrom, "The Present State of Shape Memory Materials and Barriers Still to be Overcome," Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies (SMST-94),7-10 March 1994, Asilomar Conference Center, Pacific Grove, California, USA, SMST, Santa Clara, CA,1994, pp. 1-6.5.
[210]Uekull, J. (1905) Leitfaden in das Studium der Experimentellen Biologie der Wassertiere. Wiesbaden, Bergmann
[211]Tinbergen, L. (1939) Zur Fortpflanzungsethologie von Sepia officinalis L. Archives Neerlandaises de Zoologie 3,323-364
[212]Sutherland, N. S.(1960)., Theories of shape discrimination in Octopus. Nature 186,840-844
[213]Sutherland, N. S. (1969)., Shape discrimination in rat, octopus and goldfish:a comparative study. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 67,160-176.
[214]Rokni, D.,& Hochner, B. (2002) Ionic Currents Underlying Fast Action Potentials in the Obliquely Striated Muscle Cells of the Octopus Arm. J Neurophysiol 88:3386-3397.
[215]Ross, D., M. (1971) Protection of hermit crabs (Dardanus spp.) from octopus by commensal sea anemones (Calliactis spp.). Nature 230,401-401
[216]Polimanti, O. (1910). Les cephalopodes ont-ils une memoire? Archives de Psychologie Geneve 10,84-87
[217]Naef, A. (1923) Die Cephalopoden. R. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin
[218]Matzner H, Gutfreund Y, Hochner B (2000) Neuromuscular System of the Flexible Arm of the Octopus:Physiological Characterization. J Neurophysiol 83:1315-1328
[219]Hanlon, R.T., Turk, P.E., Lee, P.G.& Yang, W.T. (1987). Laboratory rearing of the squid Loligo pealei to the juvenile stage:growth comparisons with fishery data. Fishery Bulletin 85,163-167
[220]Girod, P. (1884) Recherches sur la peau des ce'phalopodes. La ventouse. Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen.2:379-401
[221]Crancher, P., King, M.G., Bennet, A.& Montgomery, R.B. (1972). Conditioning of a free operant in Octopus cyanea Gray. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour 17, 359-362
[222]Maldonado, H. (1968). Effect of electroconvulsive shock on memory in Octopus vulgaris. Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Physiologie 59,25-37.
[223]Y. Bar-Cohen,2nd Edition, SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering, pp. 73-89,2004.
[224]Pons, J.L.:Emerging Actuator Technologies:A Micromechatronic Approach. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester (2005)
[225]Funakubo H 1987Shape Memory Alloys(New York:Gordon and Breach)
[226]Muntz, W., R., A. (1962). Stimulus generalisation following monocular training in Octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 55,535-540
[227]Chou C and Hannaford B 1996 Measurement and modelling of McKibben pneumatic artificial musclesIEEE Trans. Robot. Autom.1290-102
[228]Sun S, Rajapakse RKND. Simulation of pseudoelastic behaviour of SMA under cyclic loading. Comput Mater Sci 2003;28:663-74.
[229]Seelecke S. Modeling the dynamic behavior of shape memory alloys. Int J Non-linear Mech 2002;37(8):1363-74.
[230]Collet M, Folte te E, Lexcellent C. Analysis of the behavior of a shape memory alloy beam under dynamical loading. Eur J Mech A-Solids 2001;20:615-30.
[231]Vogel, S.1984. Drag and flexibility in sessile organisms. Am. Zool.24:37-44.
[232]Roark, R. J.1943. Formulas for Stress and Strain,2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
[233]Denny, M. W.1988. Biology and the Mechanics of the Wave-swept Environment. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
[234]Baumgart F. (2000). "Stiffness -an unknown world of mechanical science?". Injury (Elsevier) 31. doi:10.1016/S0020-1383(00)80040-6. Retrieved 2012-05-04.
[235]L3 Deflection of a Horizontal Beam:Boundary Value Problems. http://www2.sjs.org/friedman/PDE/course/L3.pdf. Accessed:30th April,2014.
[236]SAES Getters Group (2013). Smartflex Springs.,"Shape Memory Springs for Actuators"www.saesgetters.com:Accessed:February 6th,2013