青藏高原及其邻近地区上空平流层—对流层物质交换的研究
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摘要
青藏高原及其邻近地区特殊的大气成分分布和动力过程使得该区域的平流层-对流层物质交换(STE)过程表现出明显的重要性和特殊性。研究高原及其邻近地区的STE不仅对了解全球STE收支和变化特征具有重要的意义,而且可为全面理解人类排放的化学物质对区域乃至全球气候的影响提供更多的信息和理论参考。本文利用MLS、AIRS、CALIPSO和TRMM等各种卫星反演产品及欧洲中心(ECMWF)和NCEP再分析资料,结合NOAA HYSPLIT轨迹模式和大气化学-气候模式,采用诊断分析和数值模拟相结合的方法,研究了青藏高原及其邻近地区上对流层和下平流层(UTLS)区域的水汽分布特征、输送过程及相关机制,探讨了深对流垂直输送对UTLS区域大气成分分布的影响以及在STE过程中的作用,进一步定量化分析了高原及其邻近地区STE的长期变化趋势和形成机制。所得的主要结论如下：
(1)本文首先利用高分辨率的MLS和AIRS卫星观测资料以及同期的再分析资料,结合NOAA HYSPLIT轨迹模式,讨论了青藏高原上空对流层顶附近的水汽分布和变化特征,以及青藏高原上空平流层与对流层之间的物质交换。研究表明：3-4月青藏高原南侧对流层顶附近100hPa存在一个水汽低值带,而7-8月和9-10月高原南侧对流层顶附近100hPa存在一个明显的水汽高值区。3-4月,亚洲夏季风未发展之前,上对流层受高原大地形抬升和西风气流的影响,高原以南地区存在对流层与平流层的物质交换,而在高原中部地区(80°E-90°E)215hPa则由于空气的下沉运动将上层的干空气向下输送出现一个水汽低值中心。7-8月,受印度夏季风和高原上空反气旋式环流的影响,高原上空有明显的水汽穿过对流层顶向平流层输送的现象,反气旋环流中心的水汽经过2-4天的上升过程可从对流层进入平流层。高原、高原以东和高原以西的水汽在对流层顶附近的季节变化基本一致,在100hPa三个不同区域的水汽在3月份均达到最低。
(2)本文的分析表明高原及其邻近地区不同区域的STE特征有着显著的差异和季节变化。3-4月高原以北地区(40°N-45°N)上对流层和下平流层区域相比于同纬度周边地区有较高的水汽,主要与来自北方的寒潮、锋面活动以及高原大地形对空气的强迫抬升有关。另一个有趣的发现是,5-9月高原以西地区(30°N-40°N)在200hPa附近存在一个显著的5-7ppmv的水汽低值区,这一低水汽带的形成主要与高原以西地区发展的反气旋有关,反气旋引起平流层的干空气下沉,导致上对流层出现一个水汽低值带。同时,高原以西地区地表为沙漠,沙漠地区本身水汽少,多为浅对流活动,故而高空水汽也较少。
(3)本文进一步利用13年的TRMM卫星资料以及NCEP资料研究了高原及其邻近地区深对流系统的分布特征。结果表明,夏季风爆发前,20dBZ回波最大高度达到14km的深对流和40dBZ回波最大高度达到10km的深对流系统主要发生在高原南坡的恒河三角洲,范围较小,高原上空的深对流系统较少。夏季风爆发后,20dBZ回波顶高达到14km的深对流系统在高原南坡的发生频数最高,范围广泛,并沿着喜马拉雅山有一深对流系统活跃的带状分布区,高原南部和东南部也存在对流系统的集中分布区；而超过17km的深对流系统仅在高原南坡零散的出现：40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在喜马拉雅山西北部凹陷区内的发生频数达到最高,并与地表降水的分布一致。从1998年到2010年期间,除了高原上空40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在夏季风爆发前是减弱趋势以外,高原和高原南坡20dBZ回波顶高超过14km和17km的深对流系统在夏季风爆发前后以及40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在夏季风期间均呈显著的增加趋势。通过对高原上空一次深对流发生发展过程中的平流层-对流层物质交换进行个例分析后发现,高原东部的强对流活动可将对流层低层具有高水汽、低臭氧和位涡的对流层空气向上输送到对流层顶附近区域,而强对流区域高而冷的对流层顶存在较强的冻干脱水作用,从而影响UTLS区域的水汽分布。
(4)本文还利用欧洲中心ERA-Interim再分析资料和WACCM3模式数据集,定量化地分析了青藏高原及其邻近地区上空穿越对流层顶的质量通量(CTMF)和平流层-对流层物质交换的长期变化趋势,诊断了影响高原及其邻近地区STE变化趋势的主要气候因子。冬季,高原及其邻近地区净穿越对流层顶的质量通量表现为一个强的空间偶极结构,主要与陡峭的对流层顶气压经向梯度或热力对流层顶的不连续引起的沿着对流层顶的质量水平交换有关。夏季,高原上空净CTMF变弱但均为向上的输送,高原东南部盛行的季风环流产生了显著的上升运动,进而引起向上的穿越对流层顶的质量输送。高原上空的净CTMF在冬季存在最大的向下质量通量,而净向上质量通量在夏季达到最大值。高原上空净穿越对流层顶的质量年交换量占全球净CTMF的2.96%。冬季,高原上空的净穿越对流层顶质量通量在1979年到2009年期间呈现强的减弱趋势,表明过去几十年高原上空向上的质量通量减少,而向下的质量通量增加。造成冬季高原上空净CTMF呈现明显减弱趋势的主要原因是高原上空对流层顶的抬升和高原冬季风的减弱。夏季,净CTMF在高原西部为减弱趋势,在高原东部为增加趋势。气候模式的模拟结果表明,南海地区海温的变化通过改变亚洲季风环流的强度进而对高原上空的对流层顶高度和穿越对流层顶的质量通量产生显著的影响。
The atmospheric constituents and dynamical process of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and its surroundings make the stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) over the TP and its surroundings become a crucial and special research topic. Detailed investigations on the STE over the TP and its surroundings are not only crucial for understanding the characteristics and global budget of the STE, but also important for providing us with more information and theoretical basis to understand the impact of anthropogenic emissions on regional and global climate change. Using the MLS (Microwave Limb Sounder), AIRS (Atmosphere Infrared Sounder), CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) and TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) observations together with the ERA-Interim of ECMWF (European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting) reanalysis data and NCEP (National Centers for Environmental Prediction) reanalysis data, a trajectory model (NOAA HYSPLIT) and a climate-chemistry model, characteristics and transport prepoperties of water vapor in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS) over the TP and its surroundings are investigated, and the effect of vertical transport by deep convective activities on the chemical constituents in UTLS over the TP and its surroundings are discussed in this thesis. In addition, the long-term trends of the STE as well as the main mechanisms responsible for STE trends over the TP and its surroundings are also analyzed. The main conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) The distributions and sources of atmospheric water vapor near tropopause region over the TP and the associated STE over the TP are investigated using satellite observations, NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and a trajectory model. The results show that the distributions of water vapor over the TP are characterized by a minimum over the southern TP during March and April, and a maximum over the southern TP from July to October near tropopause region at100hPa. The water vapor mixing ratios have large values in the upper troposphere over the south slope of TP between March and April. The results suggest that transport of air masses from the troposphere to stratosphere occurs over south slope of TP because of the orographic lifting of TP and the westerly circulation. The low water vapor at215hPa over the center of the TP (80°E-90°E) is related to the sinking of dry air from the UTLS region. The water vapor over the TP is the highest in the exuberant monsoon season between July and August and is related to the Indian summer monsoon the associated anticyclonic circulation, which transports water vapor to the TP lower stratosphere by2-4days. The seasonal variation of water vapor mixing ratios near tropopause region (i.e., at100hPa) over the TP, the east and west of TP are consistent with each other, the minimum value of water vapor occurs in March.
(2) The results show prominent difference and seasonal variation exisit in the STE patters over different regions of the TP. The water vapor in the UTLS adjacent to the northern TP (40°N-45°N) is found to be relatively higher than that in the surrounding regions of the same latitude in March and April. This relatively higher water vapor in the northern TP UTLS is proposed to be associated with approaching cold surges from the north and forced lifting of air by high orography. Another interesting feature detected in this study is the region of low water vapor values on the order of5-7ppmv, which is more pronounced from May to September at around200hPa and located at30°N-40°N western TP. This low water vapor region is found to be related to an anticyclone developed at the western TP which causes sinking of dry air from the stratosphere resulting lower water vapor values in the upper troposphere. In addition, the low water vapor and weak convective activity over the desert at the western TP lead to the lower water vapor in the upper troposphere at the western TP.
(3) Using13years of TRMM data and NCEP reanalysis fields, the characteristics of deep convection distributions and variations over the TP and its surroundings are investigated. The results show that deep convective activities of radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥14km in height and radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height form preferentially over the Ganges Delta, the number of deep convection is low over the TP in the premonsoon season. During the monsoon season, the deep convective activities of radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥14km in height are primarily found over the south slope of the TP, along the Himalayan foothills, the southern and southeastern TP. While the deep convection with radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥17km in height occurred over the south slope of the TP is rare. The location of maximum occurrence of the deep convection (radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height) is the western Himalayan, which is consistent with the surface precipitation. The deep convection ove the TP (radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height) exhibits a weaker decreasing trend in the premonsoon and the deep convection has an increasing trend during1998-2010. Furthermore, the vertical transport of mass by deep convective activities occurred over the eastern TP shows that the air with high water vapor, low ozone and potential vorticity (PV) in the troposphere is transported to tropopause region by strong vertical motions over the eastern TP, but the higher and colder tropopause over the convective region leads to the stronger dehydration, which has an important impact on the chemical composition in the UTLS region over the TP.
(4) The cross-tropopause mass flux (CTMF) and long-term trends of the STE over the TP and its surroundings are analyzed, and the main factors responsible for STE trends near the TP are investigated using ECMWF reanalysis data (ERA-Interim) and a general circulation model. The net CTMF shows a strong spatial dipole structure near the TP, which is mainly related to the horizontal exchange of mass along the tropopause associated with the sharp tropopause pressure meridional gradient or discontinuity of the thermal tropopause in winter. In summer, the net CTMF over the TP becomes smaller but overall upward. The prevailing monsoon circulation over the southeastern TP gives rise to significant upward vertical motions and upward cross tropopause transport of air in this region. The STE over the TP shows that the largest downward mass flux occurs in winter, and the net upward mass flux reaches maximum in summer. The net CTMF over the TP accounts for2.96%of the global net. The net CTMF over the TP exhibits a strong decreasing trend in winter during the period1979-2009, suggesting that the upward mass flux decreases and the downward mass flux increases over the TP in the past several decades. The strong decreasing trend of net CTMF in winter over the TP is resulted from the combined effects of the rising tropopause height and weakening winter monsoon. The summer time net CTMF exhibits a decreasing trend over the western TP and an increasing trend over the eastern TP. The sensitivity simulations with a climate model reveal that changes in land-sea surface temperatures over the South Asia can significantly affect the tropopause and the CTMF over the TP via changing the intensity of Asia monsoon.
(1)本文首先利用高分辨率的MLS和AIRS卫星观测资料以及同期的再分析资料,结合NOAA HYSPLIT轨迹模式,讨论了青藏高原上空对流层顶附近的水汽分布和变化特征,以及青藏高原上空平流层与对流层之间的物质交换。研究表明：3-4月青藏高原南侧对流层顶附近100hPa存在一个水汽低值带,而7-8月和9-10月高原南侧对流层顶附近100hPa存在一个明显的水汽高值区。3-4月,亚洲夏季风未发展之前,上对流层受高原大地形抬升和西风气流的影响,高原以南地区存在对流层与平流层的物质交换,而在高原中部地区(80°E-90°E)215hPa则由于空气的下沉运动将上层的干空气向下输送出现一个水汽低值中心。7-8月,受印度夏季风和高原上空反气旋式环流的影响,高原上空有明显的水汽穿过对流层顶向平流层输送的现象,反气旋环流中心的水汽经过2-4天的上升过程可从对流层进入平流层。高原、高原以东和高原以西的水汽在对流层顶附近的季节变化基本一致,在100hPa三个不同区域的水汽在3月份均达到最低。
(2)本文的分析表明高原及其邻近地区不同区域的STE特征有着显著的差异和季节变化。3-4月高原以北地区(40°N-45°N)上对流层和下平流层区域相比于同纬度周边地区有较高的水汽,主要与来自北方的寒潮、锋面活动以及高原大地形对空气的强迫抬升有关。另一个有趣的发现是,5-9月高原以西地区(30°N-40°N)在200hPa附近存在一个显著的5-7ppmv的水汽低值区,这一低水汽带的形成主要与高原以西地区发展的反气旋有关,反气旋引起平流层的干空气下沉,导致上对流层出现一个水汽低值带。同时,高原以西地区地表为沙漠,沙漠地区本身水汽少,多为浅对流活动,故而高空水汽也较少。
(3)本文进一步利用13年的TRMM卫星资料以及NCEP资料研究了高原及其邻近地区深对流系统的分布特征。结果表明,夏季风爆发前,20dBZ回波最大高度达到14km的深对流和40dBZ回波最大高度达到10km的深对流系统主要发生在高原南坡的恒河三角洲,范围较小,高原上空的深对流系统较少。夏季风爆发后,20dBZ回波顶高达到14km的深对流系统在高原南坡的发生频数最高,范围广泛,并沿着喜马拉雅山有一深对流系统活跃的带状分布区,高原南部和东南部也存在对流系统的集中分布区；而超过17km的深对流系统仅在高原南坡零散的出现：40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在喜马拉雅山西北部凹陷区内的发生频数达到最高,并与地表降水的分布一致。从1998年到2010年期间,除了高原上空40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在夏季风爆发前是减弱趋势以外,高原和高原南坡20dBZ回波顶高超过14km和17km的深对流系统在夏季风爆发前后以及40dBZ回波顶高大于10km的深对流系统在夏季风期间均呈显著的增加趋势。通过对高原上空一次深对流发生发展过程中的平流层-对流层物质交换进行个例分析后发现,高原东部的强对流活动可将对流层低层具有高水汽、低臭氧和位涡的对流层空气向上输送到对流层顶附近区域,而强对流区域高而冷的对流层顶存在较强的冻干脱水作用,从而影响UTLS区域的水汽分布。
(4)本文还利用欧洲中心ERA-Interim再分析资料和WACCM3模式数据集,定量化地分析了青藏高原及其邻近地区上空穿越对流层顶的质量通量(CTMF)和平流层-对流层物质交换的长期变化趋势,诊断了影响高原及其邻近地区STE变化趋势的主要气候因子。冬季,高原及其邻近地区净穿越对流层顶的质量通量表现为一个强的空间偶极结构,主要与陡峭的对流层顶气压经向梯度或热力对流层顶的不连续引起的沿着对流层顶的质量水平交换有关。夏季,高原上空净CTMF变弱但均为向上的输送,高原东南部盛行的季风环流产生了显著的上升运动,进而引起向上的穿越对流层顶的质量输送。高原上空的净CTMF在冬季存在最大的向下质量通量,而净向上质量通量在夏季达到最大值。高原上空净穿越对流层顶的质量年交换量占全球净CTMF的2.96%。冬季,高原上空的净穿越对流层顶质量通量在1979年到2009年期间呈现强的减弱趋势,表明过去几十年高原上空向上的质量通量减少,而向下的质量通量增加。造成冬季高原上空净CTMF呈现明显减弱趋势的主要原因是高原上空对流层顶的抬升和高原冬季风的减弱。夏季,净CTMF在高原西部为减弱趋势,在高原东部为增加趋势。气候模式的模拟结果表明,南海地区海温的变化通过改变亚洲季风环流的强度进而对高原上空的对流层顶高度和穿越对流层顶的质量通量产生显著的影响。
The atmospheric constituents and dynamical process of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and its surroundings make the stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) over the TP and its surroundings become a crucial and special research topic. Detailed investigations on the STE over the TP and its surroundings are not only crucial for understanding the characteristics and global budget of the STE, but also important for providing us with more information and theoretical basis to understand the impact of anthropogenic emissions on regional and global climate change. Using the MLS (Microwave Limb Sounder), AIRS (Atmosphere Infrared Sounder), CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) and TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) observations together with the ERA-Interim of ECMWF (European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting) reanalysis data and NCEP (National Centers for Environmental Prediction) reanalysis data, a trajectory model (NOAA HYSPLIT) and a climate-chemistry model, characteristics and transport prepoperties of water vapor in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS) over the TP and its surroundings are investigated, and the effect of vertical transport by deep convective activities on the chemical constituents in UTLS over the TP and its surroundings are discussed in this thesis. In addition, the long-term trends of the STE as well as the main mechanisms responsible for STE trends over the TP and its surroundings are also analyzed. The main conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) The distributions and sources of atmospheric water vapor near tropopause region over the TP and the associated STE over the TP are investigated using satellite observations, NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and a trajectory model. The results show that the distributions of water vapor over the TP are characterized by a minimum over the southern TP during March and April, and a maximum over the southern TP from July to October near tropopause region at100hPa. The water vapor mixing ratios have large values in the upper troposphere over the south slope of TP between March and April. The results suggest that transport of air masses from the troposphere to stratosphere occurs over south slope of TP because of the orographic lifting of TP and the westerly circulation. The low water vapor at215hPa over the center of the TP (80°E-90°E) is related to the sinking of dry air from the UTLS region. The water vapor over the TP is the highest in the exuberant monsoon season between July and August and is related to the Indian summer monsoon the associated anticyclonic circulation, which transports water vapor to the TP lower stratosphere by2-4days. The seasonal variation of water vapor mixing ratios near tropopause region (i.e., at100hPa) over the TP, the east and west of TP are consistent with each other, the minimum value of water vapor occurs in March.
(2) The results show prominent difference and seasonal variation exisit in the STE patters over different regions of the TP. The water vapor in the UTLS adjacent to the northern TP (40°N-45°N) is found to be relatively higher than that in the surrounding regions of the same latitude in March and April. This relatively higher water vapor in the northern TP UTLS is proposed to be associated with approaching cold surges from the north and forced lifting of air by high orography. Another interesting feature detected in this study is the region of low water vapor values on the order of5-7ppmv, which is more pronounced from May to September at around200hPa and located at30°N-40°N western TP. This low water vapor region is found to be related to an anticyclone developed at the western TP which causes sinking of dry air from the stratosphere resulting lower water vapor values in the upper troposphere. In addition, the low water vapor and weak convective activity over the desert at the western TP lead to the lower water vapor in the upper troposphere at the western TP.
(3) Using13years of TRMM data and NCEP reanalysis fields, the characteristics of deep convection distributions and variations over the TP and its surroundings are investigated. The results show that deep convective activities of radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥14km in height and radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height form preferentially over the Ganges Delta, the number of deep convection is low over the TP in the premonsoon season. During the monsoon season, the deep convective activities of radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥14km in height are primarily found over the south slope of the TP, along the Himalayan foothills, the southern and southeastern TP. While the deep convection with radar echo≥20dBZ extending≥17km in height occurred over the south slope of the TP is rare. The location of maximum occurrence of the deep convection (radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height) is the western Himalayan, which is consistent with the surface precipitation. The deep convection ove the TP (radar echo≥40dBZ extending≥10km in height) exhibits a weaker decreasing trend in the premonsoon and the deep convection has an increasing trend during1998-2010. Furthermore, the vertical transport of mass by deep convective activities occurred over the eastern TP shows that the air with high water vapor, low ozone and potential vorticity (PV) in the troposphere is transported to tropopause region by strong vertical motions over the eastern TP, but the higher and colder tropopause over the convective region leads to the stronger dehydration, which has an important impact on the chemical composition in the UTLS region over the TP.
(4) The cross-tropopause mass flux (CTMF) and long-term trends of the STE over the TP and its surroundings are analyzed, and the main factors responsible for STE trends near the TP are investigated using ECMWF reanalysis data (ERA-Interim) and a general circulation model. The net CTMF shows a strong spatial dipole structure near the TP, which is mainly related to the horizontal exchange of mass along the tropopause associated with the sharp tropopause pressure meridional gradient or discontinuity of the thermal tropopause in winter. In summer, the net CTMF over the TP becomes smaller but overall upward. The prevailing monsoon circulation over the southeastern TP gives rise to significant upward vertical motions and upward cross tropopause transport of air in this region. The STE over the TP shows that the largest downward mass flux occurs in winter, and the net upward mass flux reaches maximum in summer. The net CTMF over the TP accounts for2.96%of the global net. The net CTMF over the TP exhibits a strong decreasing trend in winter during the period1979-2009, suggesting that the upward mass flux decreases and the downward mass flux increases over the TP in the past several decades. The strong decreasing trend of net CTMF in winter over the TP is resulted from the combined effects of the rising tropopause height and weakening winter monsoon. The summer time net CTMF exhibits a decreasing trend over the western TP and an increasing trend over the eastern TP. The sensitivity simulations with a climate model reveal that changes in land-sea surface temperatures over the South Asia can significantly affect the tropopause and the CTMF over the TP via changing the intensity of Asia monsoon.
引文
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