基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值评估方法研究与应用
摘要
生态系统是人类的生命支持系统,人类的福祉与生态系统所提供的服务密不可分。自从1983年“生态系统服务”(ecosystem services)术语首次提出以来,学术界广泛开展了生态系统服务的理论和评估研究,加深了公众对于生态系统重要性的理解,生态系统服务价值评估逐渐成为衡量生态系统重要性与揭示生态系统保护成本效益以及进行资源有效配置的重要工具之一,辅助决策者进行更有效与更科学的环境管理与政策的制定。
本文针对当前生态系统服务价值评估中的不足,如数据获取较难、评估效率较低、评估结果缺乏空间维度表达等,在一定程度上掩盖了生态系统服务固有的空间异质性,难以为区域环境管理提供支撑,从评估方法学上,建立了基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值评估方法。在全面评估国内外有关生态系统服务价值评估研究的基础上,分析总结了当前生态系统服务价值评估研究中涉及的几种代表性观点(定义、内涵和分类);从生态系统服务的效用表现形式和空间评估需要,提出区域生态系统服务分类及相应的价值评估指标;基于GIS初步构建了适用于中小区域尺度的生态系统服务价值评估技术框架与空间表达方法;通过案例研究,评估和分析了2005年浙江省天台县的生态系统服务价值。主要的研究成果如下:
1.在分析总结当前生态系统服务价值评估研究中对于生态系统服务的定义、内涵阐述基础上,从理清“自然组分-生态系统过程-生态系统功能-生态系统服务-获得惠益”之间的关系出发,提出了生态系统服务为可直接或间接享受、消费和利用的用于满足人类需求以产生人类福祉的生态系统产品、过程或功能;并对生态系统服务内涵进一步阐述,生态系统服务是一种生态现象,来自于生态系统过程和功能,可以直接或间接享受、消费和利用,强调了满足人类需求和为人类福祉做出的贡献,但生态系统服务不直接等同于人类获得的惠益。
2.区域生态系统服务分类及价值评估指标。根据生态系统服务产生的特点以及效用表现形式,将生态系统服务分为三个层级类型,一级分类为供给服务、调节服务、文化服务和支持服务,二级分类包括产品提供、淡水提供、调节服务等18种类型,三级分类包括农产品提供、林产品提供、拦截降水等31种类型;为降低重复计算的风险,根据惠益的获取方式,将生态系统服务类型划分为中间服务和最终服务两类,根据生态系统服务是否对研究区边界外部产生影响和是否对研究区内的人类产生直接的惠益两大原则,初步建立了区域生态系统服务价值的评估指标。
3.构建基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值空间评估技术框架。利用GIS强大的空间分析、数据处理与信息管理优势,集成现有的生态经济学评估方法,构建了基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值空间评估技术框架,将生态系统服务价值分配到单元格,实现生态系统服务价值的空间分配。评估包括四大关键步骤:研究区识别、数据收集与数据库建立、模型计算与赋值、结果的空间表达。
4.以浙江省天台县为案例,评估了2005年天台县的生态系统服务价值,结果显示,生态系统服务总价值相当于当年GDP的87%,直接利用价值比重略高于间接利用价值。各生态系统类型中,森林生态系统价值最高,其次是农田生态系统,最低为河流生态系统。天台县生态系统服务价值具有高度空间异质性,各行政单元的生态系统服务总价值与单位面积价值并不呈现一一对应的关系,总价值高的地区主要分布在天台县中部盆地发达乡镇,而单位面积高的主要分布在天台县东北部森林覆盖率高的林场及乡镇,采用单位面积生态系统服务价值更能真实地反映生态系统保护以及环境压力的现实情况。
5.天台县有林地面积与耕地面积之间具有显著的竞争性,有林地面积的增加能显著提升间接利用价值水平,耕地面积的增加则能显著提升产品提供服务价值水平,同时也降低了间接利用服务效用的发挥。各直接利用价值之间不存在显著的相关关系,各间接利用服务价值之间呈现两两显著的相关关系,表明提升其中一种间接利用价值将能同时提升其余间接利用价值的水平。
As the life support system, ecosystem is providing a range of services for human well-beings. Since the term "ecosystem services" was put forward in 1983, a wide range of studies associated with ecosystem services theory and valuation has been carried out, which has been enhancing public understanding of the importance of the ecosystem. The valuation of ecosystem services has become an essential tool to tell the importance of ecosystem for humans, and also a scientific basis for cost-benefits analysis and trade-off in resource management aim to meet more effective policy-making.
Based on the reviews on the progress towards ecosystem services studies and the valuation practices, this paper firstly analysis and define what ecosystem services are. According to the various scales the ecosystem services are generated, and based on the classification method of ecosystem services giving by other scholar, this thesis firstly discuss the classifications and valuation indexes of regional ecosystem services, then a GIS-based approach for valuation and mapping of ecosystem services at mesoscale is developed, which is applied to a case study in Tiantai County, Zhejiang Province.
The main content and results are as follows:
The relationships among "nature components-ecosystem processes-ecosystem functions-ecosystem services-benefits" are discussed. Ecosystem services refers to the products, processes and functions that can be enjoyed, consumed and utilized to satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly. Ecosystem services are an ecological phenomenon, which are generated from ecosystem processes and functions for satisfying human needs and increasing well-beings.
Based on the understanding on the ways ecosystem provides benefits, the ecosystem services are subdivided into provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services and supporting services including 31 kinds of services. To avoid double-counting, ecosystem services are divided into intermediary services and final services, and a kind of valuation-oriented indexes are discussed.
A GIS-based approach and/or framework for ecosystem services valuation is discussed to overcome some of obstacles in revealing the spatial difference of ecosystem, enabling the progress towards distributing the values toward each grid. The framework contains four key steps: study area definition, data collection and data-base establishment, calculation and value assignment, ecosystem services value mapping.
The GIS-based approach is applied to value the ecosystem services of Tiantai County in 2005, the results indicate that the total ecosystem services value(TEV) is 0.87 times of the GDP, direct use value(DV) is a little higher than indirect use value(IDV). The forest ecosystem occupies the highest percentage of TEV in Tiantai County, and the river ecosystem occupies the lowest. The mapping results show a high degree of spatial heterogeneity, however, the TEV and the value per unit area of each administrative unit doesn't show one to one relationship. The townships in central basin occupy the higher percentage of TEV, whereas the forest areas in northeast Tiantai County occupy higher value per unit area. It shows that the using the value per unit area as an indicator is more practical to reveal the protection of ecosystem and the environmental pressure.
The related verification results show the significant competitive relationship between forest and farmland. The increase of forest area can significantly enhance the indirect use value; the increase of farmland area can significantly enhance the products provisioning services value, while at the same time weaken the benefits obtain from indirect use value. It is a positive correlation among each kind of indirect use value of ecosystem services, but a negative one between each direct use value. Further studies are required to get deep insights to generate new regional perspectives on key ecosystem services protection.
本文针对当前生态系统服务价值评估中的不足,如数据获取较难、评估效率较低、评估结果缺乏空间维度表达等,在一定程度上掩盖了生态系统服务固有的空间异质性,难以为区域环境管理提供支撑,从评估方法学上,建立了基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值评估方法。在全面评估国内外有关生态系统服务价值评估研究的基础上,分析总结了当前生态系统服务价值评估研究中涉及的几种代表性观点(定义、内涵和分类);从生态系统服务的效用表现形式和空间评估需要,提出区域生态系统服务分类及相应的价值评估指标;基于GIS初步构建了适用于中小区域尺度的生态系统服务价值评估技术框架与空间表达方法;通过案例研究,评估和分析了2005年浙江省天台县的生态系统服务价值。主要的研究成果如下:
1.在分析总结当前生态系统服务价值评估研究中对于生态系统服务的定义、内涵阐述基础上,从理清“自然组分-生态系统过程-生态系统功能-生态系统服务-获得惠益”之间的关系出发,提出了生态系统服务为可直接或间接享受、消费和利用的用于满足人类需求以产生人类福祉的生态系统产品、过程或功能;并对生态系统服务内涵进一步阐述,生态系统服务是一种生态现象,来自于生态系统过程和功能,可以直接或间接享受、消费和利用,强调了满足人类需求和为人类福祉做出的贡献,但生态系统服务不直接等同于人类获得的惠益。
2.区域生态系统服务分类及价值评估指标。根据生态系统服务产生的特点以及效用表现形式,将生态系统服务分为三个层级类型,一级分类为供给服务、调节服务、文化服务和支持服务,二级分类包括产品提供、淡水提供、调节服务等18种类型,三级分类包括农产品提供、林产品提供、拦截降水等31种类型;为降低重复计算的风险,根据惠益的获取方式,将生态系统服务类型划分为中间服务和最终服务两类,根据生态系统服务是否对研究区边界外部产生影响和是否对研究区内的人类产生直接的惠益两大原则,初步建立了区域生态系统服务价值的评估指标。
3.构建基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值空间评估技术框架。利用GIS强大的空间分析、数据处理与信息管理优势,集成现有的生态经济学评估方法,构建了基于GIS的区域生态系统服务价值空间评估技术框架,将生态系统服务价值分配到单元格,实现生态系统服务价值的空间分配。评估包括四大关键步骤:研究区识别、数据收集与数据库建立、模型计算与赋值、结果的空间表达。
4.以浙江省天台县为案例,评估了2005年天台县的生态系统服务价值,结果显示,生态系统服务总价值相当于当年GDP的87%,直接利用价值比重略高于间接利用价值。各生态系统类型中,森林生态系统价值最高,其次是农田生态系统,最低为河流生态系统。天台县生态系统服务价值具有高度空间异质性,各行政单元的生态系统服务总价值与单位面积价值并不呈现一一对应的关系,总价值高的地区主要分布在天台县中部盆地发达乡镇,而单位面积高的主要分布在天台县东北部森林覆盖率高的林场及乡镇,采用单位面积生态系统服务价值更能真实地反映生态系统保护以及环境压力的现实情况。
5.天台县有林地面积与耕地面积之间具有显著的竞争性,有林地面积的增加能显著提升间接利用价值水平,耕地面积的增加则能显著提升产品提供服务价值水平,同时也降低了间接利用服务效用的发挥。各直接利用价值之间不存在显著的相关关系,各间接利用服务价值之间呈现两两显著的相关关系,表明提升其中一种间接利用价值将能同时提升其余间接利用价值的水平。
As the life support system, ecosystem is providing a range of services for human well-beings. Since the term "ecosystem services" was put forward in 1983, a wide range of studies associated with ecosystem services theory and valuation has been carried out, which has been enhancing public understanding of the importance of the ecosystem. The valuation of ecosystem services has become an essential tool to tell the importance of ecosystem for humans, and also a scientific basis for cost-benefits analysis and trade-off in resource management aim to meet more effective policy-making.
Based on the reviews on the progress towards ecosystem services studies and the valuation practices, this paper firstly analysis and define what ecosystem services are. According to the various scales the ecosystem services are generated, and based on the classification method of ecosystem services giving by other scholar, this thesis firstly discuss the classifications and valuation indexes of regional ecosystem services, then a GIS-based approach for valuation and mapping of ecosystem services at mesoscale is developed, which is applied to a case study in Tiantai County, Zhejiang Province.
The main content and results are as follows:
The relationships among "nature components-ecosystem processes-ecosystem functions-ecosystem services-benefits" are discussed. Ecosystem services refers to the products, processes and functions that can be enjoyed, consumed and utilized to satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly. Ecosystem services are an ecological phenomenon, which are generated from ecosystem processes and functions for satisfying human needs and increasing well-beings.
Based on the understanding on the ways ecosystem provides benefits, the ecosystem services are subdivided into provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services and supporting services including 31 kinds of services. To avoid double-counting, ecosystem services are divided into intermediary services and final services, and a kind of valuation-oriented indexes are discussed.
A GIS-based approach and/or framework for ecosystem services valuation is discussed to overcome some of obstacles in revealing the spatial difference of ecosystem, enabling the progress towards distributing the values toward each grid. The framework contains four key steps: study area definition, data collection and data-base establishment, calculation and value assignment, ecosystem services value mapping.
The GIS-based approach is applied to value the ecosystem services of Tiantai County in 2005, the results indicate that the total ecosystem services value(TEV) is 0.87 times of the GDP, direct use value(DV) is a little higher than indirect use value(IDV). The forest ecosystem occupies the highest percentage of TEV in Tiantai County, and the river ecosystem occupies the lowest. The mapping results show a high degree of spatial heterogeneity, however, the TEV and the value per unit area of each administrative unit doesn't show one to one relationship. The townships in central basin occupy the higher percentage of TEV, whereas the forest areas in northeast Tiantai County occupy higher value per unit area. It shows that the using the value per unit area as an indicator is more practical to reveal the protection of ecosystem and the environmental pressure.
The related verification results show the significant competitive relationship between forest and farmland. The increase of forest area can significantly enhance the indirect use value; the increase of farmland area can significantly enhance the products provisioning services value, while at the same time weaken the benefits obtain from indirect use value. It is a positive correlation among each kind of indirect use value of ecosystem services, but a negative one between each direct use value. Further studies are required to get deep insights to generate new regional perspectives on key ecosystem services protection.
引文
[1]世界银行.森林与林业[EB/OL].http://webwoddbankorg/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTARD/EXTFORESTS/0,menuPK:985797-pagePK:149018-piPK:149093-theSitePK:985785,00html,2009
[2]Pinstrup-Andersen P,Pandya-Lorch P,Rosegrant MW.The world food situation:recent developments,emerging issues,and long term prospects[R].Washington:International Food Policy Research Institute,1997
[3]Schiklomanov IA.Comprehensive assessment of freshwater resources of the world:assessment of water resources and water availability in the world[R].Stockholm:World Meteorological Organization and Stockholm Environment Institute,1997
[4]Millennium Ecosystems Assessment.Ecosystems and Human Well-being:A framework for assessment[M].Washington,DC:Island Press,2003
[5]谢高地,甄霖,鲁春霞等.一个基于专家知识的生态系统服务价值化方法[J].自然资源学报,2008,23(5):912-919
[6]Tallis H,Kareiva P.Ecosystem services[J].Current Biology,2005,15(18):R746-R748
[7]Polasky S.What's nature done for you lately:measuring the value of ecosystem services[J].Choices(AAEA),2008,23(2):42-46
[8]Tallis H,Goldman R,Uhl M,et al.Integrating conservation and development in the field:implementing ecosystem service projects[J].Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment,2009,7(1):12-20
[9]Farber SC,Costanza R,Wilson MA.Economic and ecological concepts for valuing ecosystem services[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):375-392
[10]Mooney H,Ehrlich P.Ecosystem services:a fragmentary history[J].In:G.C.Daily,Editor,Nature's Services[M].Washington,DC:Island Press 1997:11-19
[11]King RT.Wildlife and man[J].New York Conservationist,1966,20(6):8-11
[12]Wilson C,Matthews W.Man's Impact on the Global Environment[M].Cambridge:MIT Press,1970
[13]Westman WE.How much are nature' service worth?[J].Science,1977,197:960-964
[14]Ehrlich P.Extinction,substitution,and ecosystem services[J].Bioscience,1983,33(4):248-254
[15]谢高地,甄霖,鲁春霞等.生态系统服务的供给、消费及价值化[J].资源科学,2008,30(1):93-99
[16]Daily GC.Nature's Services:Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems[M].Washington, DC:Island Press,1997
[17]de Groot RS,Wilson MA,Boumans RMJ.A typology for the classification,description and valuation of ecosystem functions,goods and services[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):393-408
[18]Costanza R,d'Arge R,de Groot R,et al.The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital[J].Nature,1997,387:253-260
[19]Wallace KJ.Classification of ecosystem services:Problems and solutions[J].Biological Conservation,2007,139(3-4):235-246
[20]刘晓荻.生态系统服务[J].环境导报,1998,(1):44-45
[21]侯元兆,吴水荣.生态系统价值评估理论方法的最新进展及对我国流行概念的辨正[J].世界林业研究,2008,21(5):7-16
[22]Barbier E,Burgess J,Folke C.Paradise Lost? The Ecological Economics of Biodiversity[M].London:Earthscan Publications,1994
[23]Norberg J.Linking Nature's services to ecosystems:some general ecological concepts[J].Ecological Economics,1999,29(2):183-202
[24]Boyd J,Banzhaf S.What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units[J].Ecological Economics,2007,63(2-3):616-626
[25]Hein L,van Koppen K,de Groot RS,et al.Spatial scales,stakeholders and the valuation of ecosystem services[J].Ecological Economics,2006,57(2):209-228
[26]Maler KG,Aniyar S,Jansson A.Accounting for ecosystem services as a way to understand the requirements for sustainable development[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2008,105(28):9501-9506
[27]谢高地,鲁春霞,冷允法等.青藏高原生态资产的价值评估[J].自然资源学报,2003,18(2):189-196
[28]Fisher B,Turner RK.Ecosystem services:Classification for valuation[J].Biological Conservation,2008,141(5):1167-1169
[29]Costanza R.Ecosystem services:Multiple classification systems are needed[J].Biological Conservation,2008,141(2):350-352
[30]Brauman KA,Daily GC,Duarte TK,et al.The nature and value of ecosystem services:An overview highlighting hydrologic services[J].Annual Review of Environment and Resources,2007,32:67-98
[31]Pearce DW.Blueprint:capital theory and the measurement of sustainable develpoment[J].Ecological Economics,1993:103-108
[32]McNeely JA,Miller KR,Reid WV,et al.Conserving the World Biologial Diversity[R].Worldbank,1990
[33]Turner K.Economics and wetland management[J].Ambio,1991,20(2):59-61
[34]Pearce DW.An economic approach to saving the tropical forests[R].Blackwell,Oxford:Economic Policy towards the Environment 1991:239-262
[35]Torras M.The total economic value of Amazonian deforestation,1978-1993[J].Ecological Economics,2000,33(2):283-297
[36]刘向华.生态系统服务功能价值评估方法研究:基于三江平原七星河湿地价值评估实证分析[M].北京:中国农业出版社,2009:24-28
[37]Turner RK,Jeroen CJM,van den B,et al.Ecologiacal-Economic analysis of wetlands:scientific integration for management and policy[J].Ecological Economics,2000,35(1):7-23
[38]Straton A.A complex systems approach to the value of ecological resources[J].Ecological Economics,2006,56(3):402-411
[39]Chen X,Zhang Q,Zhou KF,et al.Quantitative assessment and analysis on the dynamic change of ecological capital in arid areas[J].Chinese Science Bulletin,2006,51:204-212
[40]King DA,Sinden JA.Influence of soil conservation on farmland values[J].Land Economics,1988,64(3):242-255
[41]Chee YE.An ecological perspective on the valuation of ecosystem services[J].Biological Conservation,2004,120(4):549-565
[42]Garrod G,Willis KG Economic Valuation of the Environment-Methods and Case Studies[M].Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,1999
[43]Portney PR.The contingent valuation debate:Why should economists care?[J].The Journal of Economic Perspectives,1994,8(4):3-17
[44]Allen BP,Loomis JB.Deriving values for the ecological support function of wildlife:An indirect valuation approach[J].Ecological Economics,2006,56(1):49-57
[45]Bockstael N,Freeman A,Kopp RJ.On measuring economic values for nature[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2000,34(8):1384-1389
[46]Champ PA,Boyle KJ,Brown TC.A primer on nonmarket valuation:The economics of non-market goods and resources[M].Boston:Kluwer Academic Publishers,2003
[47]Environmental Protection Agency US.Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses[R].In:240-R-00-003 UEPAE,ed.Washington,DC 2000
[48]Wilson M,Hoehn J.Introduction to the special issue on environmental benefits transfer:Methods,applications and new directions[J].Ecological Economics,2006,60:389-398
[49]Troy A,Wilson MA.Mapping ecosystem services:Practical challenges and opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer[J].Ecological Economics,2006,60(2):435-449
[50]欧阳志云,王效科,赵景柱.生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值评价[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(5):635-640
[51]欧阳志云,王效科,苗鸿.中国陆地生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值的初步研究[J].生态学报,1999,19(5):607-613
[52]郭中伟,李典谟.生物多样性价值在空间上的流动和过程-效益评价法[J].环境导报,1997.10:58-60
[53]Costanza R,Perez-Maqueo O,Martinez ML,et al.The value of coastal wetlands for hurricane protection[J].Ambio,2008,37(4):241-248
[54]Kaplowitz MD.Assessing mangrove products and services at the local level:The use of focus groups and individual interviews[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,2001,56(1-2):53-60
[55]Hanley N,Ruffell RJ.The contingent valuation of forest characteristics:two experiments[J].Journal of Agricultural Economics,1993,44:218-229
[56]Banzhaf HS,Boyd J.The Architecture and Measurement of An Ecosystem Services Index[R].Washington,DC:Resources for the Future,2005
[57]Boumans R,Costanza R,Farley J,et al.Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):529-560
[58]Alcamo J,van Vuuren D,Ringler C,et al.Changes in nature's balance sheet:Model-based estimates of future worldwide ecosystem services[J].Ecology and Society,2005,10(2):1-19
[59]Schroter D,Cramer W,Leemans R,et al.Ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe[J].Science,2005,310(5752):1333-1337
[60]Gret-Regamey D,Bebi P,Bishop LD,et al.Linking GIS-based models to value ecosystem services in an Alpine region[J].Journal of Environmental Management,2008,89(3): 197-208
[61]Winkler R.Valuation of ecosystem goods and services:Part 1:An integrated dynamic approach[J].Ecological Economics,2006,59(1):82-93
[62]Li J,Ren ZY.Changes in ecosystem service values on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi province,China[J].Agricultural Science in China,2008,7(5):606-614
[63]白晓飞.生态系统服务价值空间变化研究-以伊金霍洛旗为例[J].中国土地科学,2006,20(6):16-20
[64]Zhou KF,Chen X,Zhou HR,et al.Study on RS- and GIS-based ecological capital assessment in arid areas[J].Chinese Science Bulletin,2006,51:213-220
[65]陈克龙,李双成,周巧福等.近25年来青海湖流域景观结构动态变化及其对生态系统服务功能的影响[J].资源科学,2008,30(2):274-480
[66]Odum EP.Fundamentals of Ecology[M].Philadelphia:Saunders,1971
[67]张宏锋,欧阳志云,郑华.生态系统服务功能的空间尺度特征[J].生态学杂志,2007,26(9):1432-1437
[68]Levin SA.The problem of pattern and scale in ecology[J].Ecology,1992,73:1943-1976
[69]徐中民,张志强,程国栋.生态经济学理论方法与应用[M].郑州:黄河水利出版社,2003:121-122
[70]Eade JDO,Moran D.Spatial economic valuation:Benefits transfer using geographical informationn systems[J].Journal of Environmental Management,1996,48(2):97-110
[71]Guo ZW,Xiao XM,Gan YL,et al.Ecosystem functions,services and their values-a case study in Xingshan County of China[J].Ecological Economics,2001,38(1):141-154
[72]贾晓玲,康绍忠,佟玲.内陆河流域生态系统服务价值的动态估算方法与应用-以甘肃河西走廊石羊河流域为例[J].生态学报,2006,26(6):2011-1029
[73]石培礼,李文华.森林植被变化对水文过程和径流的影响效应[J].自然资源学报,2001,16(5):481-487
[74]黄承标,梁宏温.广西不同地理区域森林土壤水文物理性质研究[J].土壤与环境,1999,8(2):96-100
[75]朱蕾,黄敬峰,李军.GIS和RS支持下的土壤侵蚀模型应用研究[J].浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版),2005,31(4):413-416
[76]周伏建,陈明华,林福兴.福建省降雨侵蚀力指标R值[J].水土保持学报,1995,9(1):13-18
[77]王万忠,焦菊英.中国的土壤侵蚀因子定量评价研究[J].水土保持通报,1996,16(5):1-20
[78]Renard KG,Foster GR,Weesies GA,et al.Predicting soil erosion by water:a guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE)[R].U.S,Washington:Department of Agriculture 1997
[79]Wisclarneier WH,Smith DD.Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses-A Guide to Conservation,Agricultural Handbook 537.Planning,Science and Education Administration[R].Washington DC:US Department of Agriculture 1978
[80]黄金良,洪华生,张珞平等.基于GIS和USLE的九龙江流域土壤侵蚀量预测研究[J].水土保持学报,2004,18(5):75-79
[81]王如松,林顺坤,欧阳志云.海南生态省建设的理论与实践[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2004:95-96
[82]胡忠行.天台山国家风景名胜区旅游环境容量分析[J].海南师范学院学报(自然科学版),2002,15(3/4):76-80
[83]温远光,刘世荣.我国主要森林生态系统类型降水截留规律的数量分析[J].林业科学,1995,31(4):289-298
[84]鲍文,何丙辉,包维楷等.森林植被对降水的截留效应研究[J].水土保持研究(193-197),2004,11(1):193-197
[85]方精云,刘国华,徐嵩龄.我国森林植被的生物量和净生产量[J].1996,1996,16(5):497-508
[86]孙睿,朱启疆.陆地植被净第一性生产力的研究[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(6):757-760
[87]袁正科,田大伦,袁穗波.森林生态系统净化大气SO2能力及吸S潜力研究[J].湖南林业技,2005,32(1):1-4
[88]胡淼淼.北京奥林匹克森林公园植物景观与生态效益初探[D].北京林业大学硕士学位论文,2009:1-114
[89]唐衡,郑渝,陈阜等.北京地区不同农田类型及种植模式的生态系统服务价值评估[J].生态经济,2008,7:56-59
[90]余新晓,鲁绍伟,芳靳.中国森林生态系统服务功能价值评估[J].生态学报,2005,25(8):2096-2102
[91]李长荣.武陵源自然保护区森林生态系统服务功能及价值评估[J].林业科学,2004,40(2):16-20
[2]Pinstrup-Andersen P,Pandya-Lorch P,Rosegrant MW.The world food situation:recent developments,emerging issues,and long term prospects[R].Washington:International Food Policy Research Institute,1997
[3]Schiklomanov IA.Comprehensive assessment of freshwater resources of the world:assessment of water resources and water availability in the world[R].Stockholm:World Meteorological Organization and Stockholm Environment Institute,1997
[4]Millennium Ecosystems Assessment.Ecosystems and Human Well-being:A framework for assessment[M].Washington,DC:Island Press,2003
[5]谢高地,甄霖,鲁春霞等.一个基于专家知识的生态系统服务价值化方法[J].自然资源学报,2008,23(5):912-919
[6]Tallis H,Kareiva P.Ecosystem services[J].Current Biology,2005,15(18):R746-R748
[7]Polasky S.What's nature done for you lately:measuring the value of ecosystem services[J].Choices(AAEA),2008,23(2):42-46
[8]Tallis H,Goldman R,Uhl M,et al.Integrating conservation and development in the field:implementing ecosystem service projects[J].Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment,2009,7(1):12-20
[9]Farber SC,Costanza R,Wilson MA.Economic and ecological concepts for valuing ecosystem services[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):375-392
[10]Mooney H,Ehrlich P.Ecosystem services:a fragmentary history[J].In:G.C.Daily,Editor,Nature's Services[M].Washington,DC:Island Press 1997:11-19
[11]King RT.Wildlife and man[J].New York Conservationist,1966,20(6):8-11
[12]Wilson C,Matthews W.Man's Impact on the Global Environment[M].Cambridge:MIT Press,1970
[13]Westman WE.How much are nature' service worth?[J].Science,1977,197:960-964
[14]Ehrlich P.Extinction,substitution,and ecosystem services[J].Bioscience,1983,33(4):248-254
[15]谢高地,甄霖,鲁春霞等.生态系统服务的供给、消费及价值化[J].资源科学,2008,30(1):93-99
[16]Daily GC.Nature's Services:Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems[M].Washington, DC:Island Press,1997
[17]de Groot RS,Wilson MA,Boumans RMJ.A typology for the classification,description and valuation of ecosystem functions,goods and services[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):393-408
[18]Costanza R,d'Arge R,de Groot R,et al.The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital[J].Nature,1997,387:253-260
[19]Wallace KJ.Classification of ecosystem services:Problems and solutions[J].Biological Conservation,2007,139(3-4):235-246
[20]刘晓荻.生态系统服务[J].环境导报,1998,(1):44-45
[21]侯元兆,吴水荣.生态系统价值评估理论方法的最新进展及对我国流行概念的辨正[J].世界林业研究,2008,21(5):7-16
[22]Barbier E,Burgess J,Folke C.Paradise Lost? The Ecological Economics of Biodiversity[M].London:Earthscan Publications,1994
[23]Norberg J.Linking Nature's services to ecosystems:some general ecological concepts[J].Ecological Economics,1999,29(2):183-202
[24]Boyd J,Banzhaf S.What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units[J].Ecological Economics,2007,63(2-3):616-626
[25]Hein L,van Koppen K,de Groot RS,et al.Spatial scales,stakeholders and the valuation of ecosystem services[J].Ecological Economics,2006,57(2):209-228
[26]Maler KG,Aniyar S,Jansson A.Accounting for ecosystem services as a way to understand the requirements for sustainable development[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2008,105(28):9501-9506
[27]谢高地,鲁春霞,冷允法等.青藏高原生态资产的价值评估[J].自然资源学报,2003,18(2):189-196
[28]Fisher B,Turner RK.Ecosystem services:Classification for valuation[J].Biological Conservation,2008,141(5):1167-1169
[29]Costanza R.Ecosystem services:Multiple classification systems are needed[J].Biological Conservation,2008,141(2):350-352
[30]Brauman KA,Daily GC,Duarte TK,et al.The nature and value of ecosystem services:An overview highlighting hydrologic services[J].Annual Review of Environment and Resources,2007,32:67-98
[31]Pearce DW.Blueprint:capital theory and the measurement of sustainable develpoment[J].Ecological Economics,1993:103-108
[32]McNeely JA,Miller KR,Reid WV,et al.Conserving the World Biologial Diversity[R].Worldbank,1990
[33]Turner K.Economics and wetland management[J].Ambio,1991,20(2):59-61
[34]Pearce DW.An economic approach to saving the tropical forests[R].Blackwell,Oxford:Economic Policy towards the Environment 1991:239-262
[35]Torras M.The total economic value of Amazonian deforestation,1978-1993[J].Ecological Economics,2000,33(2):283-297
[36]刘向华.生态系统服务功能价值评估方法研究:基于三江平原七星河湿地价值评估实证分析[M].北京:中国农业出版社,2009:24-28
[37]Turner RK,Jeroen CJM,van den B,et al.Ecologiacal-Economic analysis of wetlands:scientific integration for management and policy[J].Ecological Economics,2000,35(1):7-23
[38]Straton A.A complex systems approach to the value of ecological resources[J].Ecological Economics,2006,56(3):402-411
[39]Chen X,Zhang Q,Zhou KF,et al.Quantitative assessment and analysis on the dynamic change of ecological capital in arid areas[J].Chinese Science Bulletin,2006,51:204-212
[40]King DA,Sinden JA.Influence of soil conservation on farmland values[J].Land Economics,1988,64(3):242-255
[41]Chee YE.An ecological perspective on the valuation of ecosystem services[J].Biological Conservation,2004,120(4):549-565
[42]Garrod G,Willis KG Economic Valuation of the Environment-Methods and Case Studies[M].Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,1999
[43]Portney PR.The contingent valuation debate:Why should economists care?[J].The Journal of Economic Perspectives,1994,8(4):3-17
[44]Allen BP,Loomis JB.Deriving values for the ecological support function of wildlife:An indirect valuation approach[J].Ecological Economics,2006,56(1):49-57
[45]Bockstael N,Freeman A,Kopp RJ.On measuring economic values for nature[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2000,34(8):1384-1389
[46]Champ PA,Boyle KJ,Brown TC.A primer on nonmarket valuation:The economics of non-market goods and resources[M].Boston:Kluwer Academic Publishers,2003
[47]Environmental Protection Agency US.Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses[R].In:240-R-00-003 UEPAE,ed.Washington,DC 2000
[48]Wilson M,Hoehn J.Introduction to the special issue on environmental benefits transfer:Methods,applications and new directions[J].Ecological Economics,2006,60:389-398
[49]Troy A,Wilson MA.Mapping ecosystem services:Practical challenges and opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer[J].Ecological Economics,2006,60(2):435-449
[50]欧阳志云,王效科,赵景柱.生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值评价[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(5):635-640
[51]欧阳志云,王效科,苗鸿.中国陆地生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值的初步研究[J].生态学报,1999,19(5):607-613
[52]郭中伟,李典谟.生物多样性价值在空间上的流动和过程-效益评价法[J].环境导报,1997.10:58-60
[53]Costanza R,Perez-Maqueo O,Martinez ML,et al.The value of coastal wetlands for hurricane protection[J].Ambio,2008,37(4):241-248
[54]Kaplowitz MD.Assessing mangrove products and services at the local level:The use of focus groups and individual interviews[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,2001,56(1-2):53-60
[55]Hanley N,Ruffell RJ.The contingent valuation of forest characteristics:two experiments[J].Journal of Agricultural Economics,1993,44:218-229
[56]Banzhaf HS,Boyd J.The Architecture and Measurement of An Ecosystem Services Index[R].Washington,DC:Resources for the Future,2005
[57]Boumans R,Costanza R,Farley J,et al.Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model[J].Ecological Economics,2002,41(3):529-560
[58]Alcamo J,van Vuuren D,Ringler C,et al.Changes in nature's balance sheet:Model-based estimates of future worldwide ecosystem services[J].Ecology and Society,2005,10(2):1-19
[59]Schroter D,Cramer W,Leemans R,et al.Ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe[J].Science,2005,310(5752):1333-1337
[60]Gret-Regamey D,Bebi P,Bishop LD,et al.Linking GIS-based models to value ecosystem services in an Alpine region[J].Journal of Environmental Management,2008,89(3): 197-208
[61]Winkler R.Valuation of ecosystem goods and services:Part 1:An integrated dynamic approach[J].Ecological Economics,2006,59(1):82-93
[62]Li J,Ren ZY.Changes in ecosystem service values on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi province,China[J].Agricultural Science in China,2008,7(5):606-614
[63]白晓飞.生态系统服务价值空间变化研究-以伊金霍洛旗为例[J].中国土地科学,2006,20(6):16-20
[64]Zhou KF,Chen X,Zhou HR,et al.Study on RS- and GIS-based ecological capital assessment in arid areas[J].Chinese Science Bulletin,2006,51:213-220
[65]陈克龙,李双成,周巧福等.近25年来青海湖流域景观结构动态变化及其对生态系统服务功能的影响[J].资源科学,2008,30(2):274-480
[66]Odum EP.Fundamentals of Ecology[M].Philadelphia:Saunders,1971
[67]张宏锋,欧阳志云,郑华.生态系统服务功能的空间尺度特征[J].生态学杂志,2007,26(9):1432-1437
[68]Levin SA.The problem of pattern and scale in ecology[J].Ecology,1992,73:1943-1976
[69]徐中民,张志强,程国栋.生态经济学理论方法与应用[M].郑州:黄河水利出版社,2003:121-122
[70]Eade JDO,Moran D.Spatial economic valuation:Benefits transfer using geographical informationn systems[J].Journal of Environmental Management,1996,48(2):97-110
[71]Guo ZW,Xiao XM,Gan YL,et al.Ecosystem functions,services and their values-a case study in Xingshan County of China[J].Ecological Economics,2001,38(1):141-154
[72]贾晓玲,康绍忠,佟玲.内陆河流域生态系统服务价值的动态估算方法与应用-以甘肃河西走廊石羊河流域为例[J].生态学报,2006,26(6):2011-1029
[73]石培礼,李文华.森林植被变化对水文过程和径流的影响效应[J].自然资源学报,2001,16(5):481-487
[74]黄承标,梁宏温.广西不同地理区域森林土壤水文物理性质研究[J].土壤与环境,1999,8(2):96-100
[75]朱蕾,黄敬峰,李军.GIS和RS支持下的土壤侵蚀模型应用研究[J].浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版),2005,31(4):413-416
[76]周伏建,陈明华,林福兴.福建省降雨侵蚀力指标R值[J].水土保持学报,1995,9(1):13-18
[77]王万忠,焦菊英.中国的土壤侵蚀因子定量评价研究[J].水土保持通报,1996,16(5):1-20
[78]Renard KG,Foster GR,Weesies GA,et al.Predicting soil erosion by water:a guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE)[R].U.S,Washington:Department of Agriculture 1997
[79]Wisclarneier WH,Smith DD.Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses-A Guide to Conservation,Agricultural Handbook 537.Planning,Science and Education Administration[R].Washington DC:US Department of Agriculture 1978
[80]黄金良,洪华生,张珞平等.基于GIS和USLE的九龙江流域土壤侵蚀量预测研究[J].水土保持学报,2004,18(5):75-79
[81]王如松,林顺坤,欧阳志云.海南生态省建设的理论与实践[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2004:95-96
[82]胡忠行.天台山国家风景名胜区旅游环境容量分析[J].海南师范学院学报(自然科学版),2002,15(3/4):76-80
[83]温远光,刘世荣.我国主要森林生态系统类型降水截留规律的数量分析[J].林业科学,1995,31(4):289-298
[84]鲍文,何丙辉,包维楷等.森林植被对降水的截留效应研究[J].水土保持研究(193-197),2004,11(1):193-197
[85]方精云,刘国华,徐嵩龄.我国森林植被的生物量和净生产量[J].1996,1996,16(5):497-508
[86]孙睿,朱启疆.陆地植被净第一性生产力的研究[J].应用生态学报,1999,10(6):757-760
[87]袁正科,田大伦,袁穗波.森林生态系统净化大气SO2能力及吸S潜力研究[J].湖南林业技,2005,32(1):1-4
[88]胡淼淼.北京奥林匹克森林公园植物景观与生态效益初探[D].北京林业大学硕士学位论文,2009:1-114
[89]唐衡,郑渝,陈阜等.北京地区不同农田类型及种植模式的生态系统服务价值评估[J].生态经济,2008,7:56-59
[90]余新晓,鲁绍伟,芳靳.中国森林生态系统服务功能价值评估[J].生态学报,2005,25(8):2096-2102
[91]李长荣.武陵源自然保护区森林生态系统服务功能及价值评估[J].林业科学,2004,40(2):16-20