利用卫星反演资料研究
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摘要
云的存在能改变地球大气系统的辐射收支平衡,对驱动大气环流、调节地球气候和水循环过程起着重要作用。了解云特性的气候学特征和全球变化,并把它们与地气系统的辐射收支和水循环过程相关联对气候和水资源研究是很重要的,而要定量地研究这些问题依赖于从卫星遥感资料中准确反演出云的特性参量。为此,本论文对西北地区云特性参量的时空分布特征、云与气候及水循环过程的关系、云对地气系统的辐射强迫作用进行了研究,并利用MODIS获取的多通道遥感信号,借助辐射传输模式和查算表方法,进行了云特性参数的反演试验。
本论文采用目前国际上资料连续性最好、时段最长、定标最完整连贯的一套云气候数据集——国际卫星云气候计划ISCCP D2资料,以及最新发布的云与地球辐射能量系统CERES SSF Aqua MODIS Edition 1B高光谱和高空间分辨率资料,该资料把云参量的反演与同时刻大气层顶的宽带辐射通量匹配了起来,并引进了新的角分布模式,从而使云特性和辐射参量数据具有前所未有的准确性。
本论文首次针对西北三个气候区和四个典型地域,对总云和高、中、低云以及15种具体类型云的特性参量进行了分析比较,使得对西北地区云特性的时空分布特征有了比以往更细致深入的了解,充实了我国云参量气候学研究的内容。研究结果表明:月平均总云量、总光学厚度和总云水路径在三个气候区的区域平均值分别为52.5%-58.3%、2.6-6.6和44.9-77.6g/m~2,亚洲季风影响区及其边缘区域的云水资源最丰富;15种云中,云量最多的是卷云,各区可达20%左右。冰雨层云、冰层云和深对流云含水量最丰富,云水路径的区域平均值在400.8—437.9g/m~2之间;从多年平均空间分布特征来看,水高层云、水雨层云、冰高层云、冰雨层云、卷云、卷层云和深对流云的云量分布形式与总云量、中云云量、总光学厚度和总云水路径的分布形势很相似:高值区位于天山-昆仑山-祁连山一带以及陕南和/或陇南地区,低值区在塔里木盆地-内蒙古西部戈壁沙漠-黄土高原西北部一带;从季节变化来看,总云量和绝大多数具体云类云量在春夏季明显多于秋冬季,其中西风带气候区和高原气候区在3—7月总云量的平均值维持在全年的高值区,而亚洲季风影响区及其边缘区域这个高值区还延伸到8、9两月;15年来,各区总云量没有上升,但总光学厚度和总云水路径均呈上升趋势。
Clouds can change the radiation budget of the Earth-atmospheric system and so play a critical role in driving atmospheric circulation and regulating the Earth climate and the water cycle process. It is important to the research of climate and water resources to know the climatological characteristics and global variability of cloud properties and to be able to relate them to the radiation budget and the water cycle process. To quantitily study these issues depends on accurate retrieval of cloud parameters from satellite remote sensing data. Therefore, in this thesis the temporal and spatial characteristics of cloud parameters, the relation between clouds and climate and water cycle, the cloud radiative effects on the Earth-atmospheric system over northwestern China were studied, and also an experimental study of cloud retrieval using the multichannel remote sensing data of MODIS with the radiation transfer model and look-up-table method was conducted.The dataset used in this thesis is International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) D2 which has the best continuity, longest time coverage and the most coherent calibration among the present international cloud climatic datasets. The most recent data of Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) Single Scanner Footprint (SSF) Aqua MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Edition IB data with high spectral and spatial resolution were also used in which broadband shortwave and longwave radiance measurements are matched to simultaneous retrievals of cloud properties from the MODIS and a new angular distributive model is employed. Thus this dataset provides the most accurate cloud property and radiative parameters than ever before.In this study the parameters of total cloud, low-, middle-, high-level and 15 different types of clouds were analyzed and compared with respect three climatic regions and four typical geo-topographic regions for the first time so that a better understanding of temporal and spatial distribution of cloud properties over northwestern China has been obtained, which has enriched climatological research
about cloud properties in our country. The findings show that the regional average total cloud amount, optical thickness and water path are between 52.5%-58.3%, 2.6-6.6 and 44.9-77.6 g/m2, respectively. The cloud water resources at the Asian monsoon influence region with its fringe area are richest. The cloud amount of cirrus is the most among the 15 types that reaches about 20% over every climatic region;The water content of ice nimbostratus, ice stratus and deep convective cloud are the highest, which regional means of water path are between 400.8~437.9g/m2. The spatial distributive characteristics is that cloud amount of liquid altostratus, liquid nimbostratus, ice altostratus, ice nimbostratus, cirrus, cirrostratus and deep convective cloud have a similar pattern to the total cloud amount, middle-level cloud amount, optical thickness and water path for total cloud. Their highest-level values are over Tianshan Mountains, Kunlun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, and southern Shanxi and/or southern Gansu, while the lowest-level values are located over Tarim Basin, the western desert of Inner Mongolia and the northwestern part of Loess Plateau. The amounts of total cloud and most specific types of clouds in summer and spring are significantly more than those in autumn and winter. During March~July the mean amounts of total cloud for the westerly wind climatic region and the plateau climatic region are at the highest level for all year while this time coverage expands to August and September for the Asian monsoon influence region with its fringe area. The optical thickness and water path for total cloud both show an increasing tendency over the 15 years while the cloud amount does not rise.The results above indicate that the variation of cloud properties is highly dependent on topography, and also geography. Therefore, four specific regions associated with different topographic and geographic conditions were defined to characterize the seasonal and annual variations in cloud properties over northwestern China. The regions are the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, the Tianshan Mountains, the Qilian Mountains and the Taklimakan Desert. The results show that, at these four regions, the maxima of cloud amount and optical thickness occur in summer and the minima occur in winter. Generally, cloud particle size in summer is the smallest and the greatest in winter. The variation of cloud property
measurements with the different regions is quite large. The largest difference of yearly mean amounts for higher layer cloud occurs between the Qilian Mountains and Taklimakan Desert, which is 16.4%. The differences of yearly mean amounts for total cloud and lower layer cloud between the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region and the Taklimakan Desert reach 27.6% and 19.5% respectively. The differences of yearly mean optical thickness for higher layer and lower layer cloud between these two places is 8.7 and 7.5 respectively. The measurements of cloud amounts and optical thickness over the two mountainous regions are between the values over those two regions above. The seasonal means of water cloud particle radius over the four regions are between 7.5-15.S\xm and of ice cloud particle effective diameter are between 33.3~51.6um. The particle size is the smallest over Taklimakan Desert and is close to the measurement over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region. The largest is over either of the two mountains.In this study, the relations of the parameters such as cloud amount and water path for different cloud types to the precipitation and temperature were discussed with respect to the three different climatic regions. The results indicate that, in the three regions, the amounts of low-middle-level clouds increase and the amounts of high-level cloud reduce with the increasing of the temperature. But the variation ranges are different. The low-middle-level cloud amounts increase about 0.4%~ 1.8%/°C and the high-level cloud amounts reduced about 1.3%~6.0% /°C. A new viewpoint is presented here concerning the phenomenon of increasing warmth and humidity over northwestern China since 1980's: during the nearly 20 years, the high-level cloud amounts significantly decreased while low-middle-level cloud amounts significantly increased at all of the three climatic regions. A process of the interaction between cloud and precipitation and temperature probably exists in northwestern China that the increase of surface temperature enhances evaporation and speeds the circulation of humidity, thus causing the low-middle-level cloud amount and precipitation to increase and the high-level cloud amount to decrease, which would reduce the surface temperature or decelerate the rising of it as a result. But this result is preliminary and further research using more data is needed.
In this thesis, also for the first time, the seasonal and annual variation of cloud radiative forcing with respect to the four typical regions in northwestern China was studied and the influences of cloud parameters on radiative forcing were discussed that has improved the understanding of local cloud radiative forcing characteristics. The results show that clouds have a significant impact on the northwestern China's radiation budget. For all seasons clouds have a net cooling effect over all four regions. The cloud radiative forcing varied remarkably not only with seasonal change but also with change of topographic and geographic conditions. In general, the greatest magnitude of net cloud radiative forcing occurs in summer which reaches -158.2w/m2 over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, and -120.7 w/m , -115.2 w/m2 and -29.0 w/m2 respectively over Qilian, Tianshan mountains and Taklimakan desert;the smallest occurs in winter which reaches -75.2w/m2 over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, -19.5 w/m2 over Qilian and -2.7 w/m2 over Tianshan but the smallest occurs in autumn over Taklimakan Desert which is -7.8 w/m2. The results also reveal that cloud radiative forcing varies rather notably with the different regions. For instance, for the same season the largest difference of net cloud radiative forcing is 129w/m2 that occurs between the monsoon influence region with its fringe region and the Taklimakan Desert in summer. The yearly means of shortwave, longwave and net cloud radiative effects on the monsoon influence region all are the strongest of the four egions which reach -171.2 w/m2, 48.9 w/m2 and -122.3 w/m2;and are the smallest over the Taklimakan Desert which is -54.7 w/m2,ry ry37.3 w/m and-17.4 w/m respectively.In the last part of this thesis, based on the research of the advanced cloud retrieval methods overseas, the parameters such as cloud optical thickness, cloud top temperature, water path, water particle radius and ice particle effective diameter are retrieved through Look-up-table method using 0.65-, 3.75-, 11.0- and 12.0-um radiances data observed by MODIS on Aqua. Referring to the method of Minnis et al.(l993a, 1998), firstly the database of the cloud microphysical models and the corresponding optical properties was established to provide the approximation of cloud phase, shape and particle size distribution in real atmosphere;then the effects of
cloud parameters on absorption, reflection, transmission and emmitation of radiation were simulated using the Adding-doubling radiation thansfer model and the look-up-table was built to reflect the dependence of radiation field on the cloud parameter;when using the look-up-table, the simulated signals were compared with the signals observed by satellite to find the closest match between them, thus the cloud parameters were retrieved from the cloud models with their optical properties which corresponded to the simulated multichannal signals. Three retrieval experiments were conducted which focused on the Qilian Mountains, Tianshan Mountains and Taklimakan Desert. The results were compared with CERES SSF data and the errors were estimated by taking the SSF data as the true value. Among the three cases, generally the errors of all parameters for Qilian case are the smallest. The average absolute errors for all pixels of every parameter are all below 0.1. The relative errors of all parameters are very close to zero except that of ice particle effective diameter which is 1%;The average absolute errors of Tianshan case are between -0.42 ~ 0.20 and the relative errors are between -0. 77%~0. 84%, which. are both small. The errors of Taklimakan case are the greatest, the average absolute errors are between -2.46 ~ 2.41. The relative errors are between -5%~ 1% except the optical depth for ice cloud is 8%. In some words, the experimental results are very close to CERES SSF data that shows the four-channel-combined method of retrieval proposed by this thesis is feasible. This achievement has not yet been found in domestic research community and has provided a helpful experience for the retrieval of cloud properties under the bright background that has laid a foundation for the cloud property retrieval from FY satellites in the future.
本论文采用目前国际上资料连续性最好、时段最长、定标最完整连贯的一套云气候数据集——国际卫星云气候计划ISCCP D2资料,以及最新发布的云与地球辐射能量系统CERES SSF Aqua MODIS Edition 1B高光谱和高空间分辨率资料,该资料把云参量的反演与同时刻大气层顶的宽带辐射通量匹配了起来,并引进了新的角分布模式,从而使云特性和辐射参量数据具有前所未有的准确性。
本论文首次针对西北三个气候区和四个典型地域,对总云和高、中、低云以及15种具体类型云的特性参量进行了分析比较,使得对西北地区云特性的时空分布特征有了比以往更细致深入的了解,充实了我国云参量气候学研究的内容。研究结果表明:月平均总云量、总光学厚度和总云水路径在三个气候区的区域平均值分别为52.5%-58.3%、2.6-6.6和44.9-77.6g/m~2,亚洲季风影响区及其边缘区域的云水资源最丰富;15种云中,云量最多的是卷云,各区可达20%左右。冰雨层云、冰层云和深对流云含水量最丰富,云水路径的区域平均值在400.8—437.9g/m~2之间;从多年平均空间分布特征来看,水高层云、水雨层云、冰高层云、冰雨层云、卷云、卷层云和深对流云的云量分布形式与总云量、中云云量、总光学厚度和总云水路径的分布形势很相似:高值区位于天山-昆仑山-祁连山一带以及陕南和/或陇南地区,低值区在塔里木盆地-内蒙古西部戈壁沙漠-黄土高原西北部一带;从季节变化来看,总云量和绝大多数具体云类云量在春夏季明显多于秋冬季,其中西风带气候区和高原气候区在3—7月总云量的平均值维持在全年的高值区,而亚洲季风影响区及其边缘区域这个高值区还延伸到8、9两月;15年来,各区总云量没有上升,但总光学厚度和总云水路径均呈上升趋势。
Clouds can change the radiation budget of the Earth-atmospheric system and so play a critical role in driving atmospheric circulation and regulating the Earth climate and the water cycle process. It is important to the research of climate and water resources to know the climatological characteristics and global variability of cloud properties and to be able to relate them to the radiation budget and the water cycle process. To quantitily study these issues depends on accurate retrieval of cloud parameters from satellite remote sensing data. Therefore, in this thesis the temporal and spatial characteristics of cloud parameters, the relation between clouds and climate and water cycle, the cloud radiative effects on the Earth-atmospheric system over northwestern China were studied, and also an experimental study of cloud retrieval using the multichannel remote sensing data of MODIS with the radiation transfer model and look-up-table method was conducted.The dataset used in this thesis is International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) D2 which has the best continuity, longest time coverage and the most coherent calibration among the present international cloud climatic datasets. The most recent data of Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) Single Scanner Footprint (SSF) Aqua MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Edition IB data with high spectral and spatial resolution were also used in which broadband shortwave and longwave radiance measurements are matched to simultaneous retrievals of cloud properties from the MODIS and a new angular distributive model is employed. Thus this dataset provides the most accurate cloud property and radiative parameters than ever before.In this study the parameters of total cloud, low-, middle-, high-level and 15 different types of clouds were analyzed and compared with respect three climatic regions and four typical geo-topographic regions for the first time so that a better understanding of temporal and spatial distribution of cloud properties over northwestern China has been obtained, which has enriched climatological research
about cloud properties in our country. The findings show that the regional average total cloud amount, optical thickness and water path are between 52.5%-58.3%, 2.6-6.6 and 44.9-77.6 g/m2, respectively. The cloud water resources at the Asian monsoon influence region with its fringe area are richest. The cloud amount of cirrus is the most among the 15 types that reaches about 20% over every climatic region;The water content of ice nimbostratus, ice stratus and deep convective cloud are the highest, which regional means of water path are between 400.8~437.9g/m2. The spatial distributive characteristics is that cloud amount of liquid altostratus, liquid nimbostratus, ice altostratus, ice nimbostratus, cirrus, cirrostratus and deep convective cloud have a similar pattern to the total cloud amount, middle-level cloud amount, optical thickness and water path for total cloud. Their highest-level values are over Tianshan Mountains, Kunlun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, and southern Shanxi and/or southern Gansu, while the lowest-level values are located over Tarim Basin, the western desert of Inner Mongolia and the northwestern part of Loess Plateau. The amounts of total cloud and most specific types of clouds in summer and spring are significantly more than those in autumn and winter. During March~July the mean amounts of total cloud for the westerly wind climatic region and the plateau climatic region are at the highest level for all year while this time coverage expands to August and September for the Asian monsoon influence region with its fringe area. The optical thickness and water path for total cloud both show an increasing tendency over the 15 years while the cloud amount does not rise.The results above indicate that the variation of cloud properties is highly dependent on topography, and also geography. Therefore, four specific regions associated with different topographic and geographic conditions were defined to characterize the seasonal and annual variations in cloud properties over northwestern China. The regions are the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, the Tianshan Mountains, the Qilian Mountains and the Taklimakan Desert. The results show that, at these four regions, the maxima of cloud amount and optical thickness occur in summer and the minima occur in winter. Generally, cloud particle size in summer is the smallest and the greatest in winter. The variation of cloud property
measurements with the different regions is quite large. The largest difference of yearly mean amounts for higher layer cloud occurs between the Qilian Mountains and Taklimakan Desert, which is 16.4%. The differences of yearly mean amounts for total cloud and lower layer cloud between the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region and the Taklimakan Desert reach 27.6% and 19.5% respectively. The differences of yearly mean optical thickness for higher layer and lower layer cloud between these two places is 8.7 and 7.5 respectively. The measurements of cloud amounts and optical thickness over the two mountainous regions are between the values over those two regions above. The seasonal means of water cloud particle radius over the four regions are between 7.5-15.S\xm and of ice cloud particle effective diameter are between 33.3~51.6um. The particle size is the smallest over Taklimakan Desert and is close to the measurement over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region. The largest is over either of the two mountains.In this study, the relations of the parameters such as cloud amount and water path for different cloud types to the precipitation and temperature were discussed with respect to the three different climatic regions. The results indicate that, in the three regions, the amounts of low-middle-level clouds increase and the amounts of high-level cloud reduce with the increasing of the temperature. But the variation ranges are different. The low-middle-level cloud amounts increase about 0.4%~ 1.8%/°C and the high-level cloud amounts reduced about 1.3%~6.0% /°C. A new viewpoint is presented here concerning the phenomenon of increasing warmth and humidity over northwestern China since 1980's: during the nearly 20 years, the high-level cloud amounts significantly decreased while low-middle-level cloud amounts significantly increased at all of the three climatic regions. A process of the interaction between cloud and precipitation and temperature probably exists in northwestern China that the increase of surface temperature enhances evaporation and speeds the circulation of humidity, thus causing the low-middle-level cloud amount and precipitation to increase and the high-level cloud amount to decrease, which would reduce the surface temperature or decelerate the rising of it as a result. But this result is preliminary and further research using more data is needed.
In this thesis, also for the first time, the seasonal and annual variation of cloud radiative forcing with respect to the four typical regions in northwestern China was studied and the influences of cloud parameters on radiative forcing were discussed that has improved the understanding of local cloud radiative forcing characteristics. The results show that clouds have a significant impact on the northwestern China's radiation budget. For all seasons clouds have a net cooling effect over all four regions. The cloud radiative forcing varied remarkably not only with seasonal change but also with change of topographic and geographic conditions. In general, the greatest magnitude of net cloud radiative forcing occurs in summer which reaches -158.2w/m2 over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, and -120.7 w/m , -115.2 w/m2 and -29.0 w/m2 respectively over Qilian, Tianshan mountains and Taklimakan desert;the smallest occurs in winter which reaches -75.2w/m2 over the Asia monsoon influence region with its fringe region, -19.5 w/m2 over Qilian and -2.7 w/m2 over Tianshan but the smallest occurs in autumn over Taklimakan Desert which is -7.8 w/m2. The results also reveal that cloud radiative forcing varies rather notably with the different regions. For instance, for the same season the largest difference of net cloud radiative forcing is 129w/m2 that occurs between the monsoon influence region with its fringe region and the Taklimakan Desert in summer. The yearly means of shortwave, longwave and net cloud radiative effects on the monsoon influence region all are the strongest of the four egions which reach -171.2 w/m2, 48.9 w/m2 and -122.3 w/m2;and are the smallest over the Taklimakan Desert which is -54.7 w/m2,ry ry37.3 w/m and-17.4 w/m respectively.In the last part of this thesis, based on the research of the advanced cloud retrieval methods overseas, the parameters such as cloud optical thickness, cloud top temperature, water path, water particle radius and ice particle effective diameter are retrieved through Look-up-table method using 0.65-, 3.75-, 11.0- and 12.0-um radiances data observed by MODIS on Aqua. Referring to the method of Minnis et al.(l993a, 1998), firstly the database of the cloud microphysical models and the corresponding optical properties was established to provide the approximation of cloud phase, shape and particle size distribution in real atmosphere;then the effects of
cloud parameters on absorption, reflection, transmission and emmitation of radiation were simulated using the Adding-doubling radiation thansfer model and the look-up-table was built to reflect the dependence of radiation field on the cloud parameter;when using the look-up-table, the simulated signals were compared with the signals observed by satellite to find the closest match between them, thus the cloud parameters were retrieved from the cloud models with their optical properties which corresponded to the simulated multichannal signals. Three retrieval experiments were conducted which focused on the Qilian Mountains, Tianshan Mountains and Taklimakan Desert. The results were compared with CERES SSF data and the errors were estimated by taking the SSF data as the true value. Among the three cases, generally the errors of all parameters for Qilian case are the smallest. The average absolute errors for all pixels of every parameter are all below 0.1. The relative errors of all parameters are very close to zero except that of ice particle effective diameter which is 1%;The average absolute errors of Tianshan case are between -0.42 ~ 0.20 and the relative errors are between -0. 77%~0. 84%, which. are both small. The errors of Taklimakan case are the greatest, the average absolute errors are between -2.46 ~ 2.41. The relative errors are between -5%~ 1% except the optical depth for ice cloud is 8%. In some words, the experimental results are very close to CERES SSF data that shows the four-channel-combined method of retrieval proposed by this thesis is feasible. This achievement has not yet been found in domestic research community and has provided a helpful experience for the retrieval of cloud properties under the bright background that has laid a foundation for the cloud property retrieval from FY satellites in the future.
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赵柏林,张晓黎,朱元竞.中国地区云与辐射对气候的影响 1J2.北京大学学报(自然科学版).1992,28:371-383。
Albrecht, B. , 1989: Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness. Science, 245, 1227-1230.
Brenguier, J. -L. , Pawlowska, H. , Schuller, L. , Preusker, R. , Fischer, J. , and Fouquart, Y. , 2000: Radiative properties of boundary layer clouds: Droplet effective radius versus number concentration, J. Atmos. Sci. , 5?, 803-821.
Charlock, T. and V. Ramanathan, 1985: The Albedo Field and Cloud Radiative Forcing in a General Circulation Model with Internally Generated Cloud Optics. J. Atmos. Sci. , Vol. 42, 1408-1429,
Charlson, R. J. , S. E. Schwartz, J. M. Hales, et at. , 1992: Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Science, 255, 422-430.
Chou Ming-Dah, Lindzen R. S. and Hou A. Y. Comments on "the iris hypothesis: a negative or positive cloud feedback?" . J. Clim. 2002, 15: 2713-2715
Cirrus Case Study—Spectral Properties of Cirrus Clouds in the 8-12 Micron Window. Mon. Weather Rev., vol. 118, pp. 2377-2388.
Curry, J. A., and E. F. Ebert, 1992: Annual cycle of radiation fluxes over the Arctic Ocean: sensitivity to cloud optical properties. J. Climate., 5, 1274-1280.
Chambers, Lin H., Bing Lin, and David F. Young, 2002: Examination of new CERES data for evidence of tropical iris feedback. J. Climate., 15, 3719-3726.
Coakley, James A., Jr.;Bernstein, Robert L.;and Durkee, Philip A. 1987: Effect of Ship-Stack Effluents on Cloud Reflectivity. Science, vol. 237, pp.1020 - 1022.
Curran, R. J.;and Wu, M. -L. C. 1982: Skylab Near-Infrared Observations of Clouds Indicating Supercooled Liquid Water Droplets. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 39, pp.635 - 647.
Del Genio A. D. and Wolf A. B. The temperature dependence of the liquid water path of low clouds in the Southern Great Plains. J. Clim. 2000, 13: 3465-3486
Dong, Xiquan, Patrick Minnis, and Baike Xi, 2005: A Climotology of Midlatitude Continental Clouds from the ARM SGP Central Facility: Part I: Low-level Cloud Macrophysical, Microphysical, and Radiative Properties. J. Climate, 18,1391-1410.
FeigelsonE. M. Preliminary radiation model of a cloudy atmosphere: Parti. Structure of clouds and solar radiation. Beitr. Phys. Atmos. 1978, 51:203-229
Fu, Qiang;and Liou, K. N. 1992: On the Correlated k-Distribution Method for Radiative Transfer in Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci. vol. 49, no. 22, pp. 2139-2156.
Fu, R., A. D. Del Genio, and W. B. Rossow, 1990: Behavior of deep convective clouds in the tropical Pacific deduced from ISCCP radiances. J. Climate 3, 1129-1152.
Han, Q., W. B. Rossow, and A. A. Lacis, 1994: Near-global survey of effective droplet radii in liquid water cloud using ISCCP data. J. Climate, 7, 465-497.
Hansen, J. E.;and Pollack, J. B. 1970: Near-Infrared Light Scattering by Terrestrial Clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 27, pp. 265-281.
Harrison, E. F., P. Minnis, B. R. Barkstrom, V. Ramanathan, R. D. Cess, and G. G. Gibson, 1990: Seasonal variation of cloud radiative forcing derived from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 18687-18703.
Hartmann, D. L., V. Ramanathan, A. Berroir, and G. E. Hunt, 1986: Earth radiation budget data and climate research. Rev. Geophys., 24, 439-468.
Hatzianastassiou, N. , N. Cleridou, and I. Vardavas, 2001: Polar cloud climatologies from ISCCP C2 and D2 datasets. J. Climate, 14, 3851-3862.
Khaiyer, M. M. , A. D. Rapp, P. Minnis, D. R. Doelling, W. L. Smith, Jr. , L. Nguyen, M. L. Nordeen, and Q. Min, 2002: Evaluation of a 5-year cloud and radiative property dataset derived from GOES-8 data over the Southern Great Plains. Proc. 12th ARM Science Team Meeting, St. Petersburg, FL, Department of Energy.
Kaiser, D. P. , 2000: Decreasing cloudness over China! An updated analysis examining additional variables. Geophys Res. Lett. , 27, 2193-2196.
Lin, Bing, and William B. Rossow, 1996: Seasonal variation of liquid and ice water path in nonprecipitating clouds over oceans. J. Climate, 9, 2890-2902.
Lin, B. , B. Wielicki, P. Minnis, and W. Rossow, 1998a: Estimation of water cloud properties from satellite microwave, infrared and visible measurements in oceanic environments, Ⅰ: microwave brightness temperature simulations. J. Geophys, Res. , 103, 3873-3886.
Lin, B. , P. Minnis, B. Wielicki, D. R. Doelling, R. Palikonda, D. F. Young, and T. Uttal, 1998b: Estimation of water cloud properties from satellite microwave, infrared and visible measurements in oceanic environments, Ⅱ: Results. J. Geophys, Res. , 103, 3887-3905.
Lin B. , Wielicki B. , Chambers L. , Hu Y. , and Xu K. -M. , 2002: The Iris hypothesis: A negative or positive cloud feedback? J. Clim. 15, 3-7.
Lin, Bing, and Patrick Minnis, 2003: Cloud Liquid Water Path Variations with Temperature Observed during the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBAO Experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108 (D14), 4427-4435.
Lindzen R. S. , Chou Ming-Dah and Hou A. Y. , 2001: Does the earth have an adaptive infrared iris? Bull, Am. Meteorol. Soc. 82 (3), 417-432.
Masuda, Kazuhiko;and Takashima, Tsutomu 1990: Deriving Cirrus Information Using the Visible and Near-IR Channels of the Future NOAA-AVHRR Radiometer. Remote Sens. Environ. , vol. 31, pp. 65-81.
Miles, N. L. , J. Verlinde, and E. E. Clothiaux, 2000: Cloud-droplet size distributions in low-level stratiform clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. , 57, 295-311.
Minnis, Patrick;Kratz, David P.;Coakley, James A. , Jr.;King, Michael D.;Garber, Donald;Heck, Patrick;Mayor, Shalini;Smith, W. L. , Jr.;Young, David F.;and Arduini, Robert 1995: Cloud Optical Property Retrieval. Clouds and the Earth' s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Algorithm Theoretical Basic Document, Volume Ⅲ--Cloud Analyses and Determination of Improved Top of Atmosphere Fluxes, NASA RP-1376, pp. 135-176.
Minnis, Patrick;Liou, Kuo-Nan;and Takano, Yoshihide 1993b: Inference of Cirrus Cloud Properties Using Satellite-Observed Visible and Infrared Radiances. I—Parameterization of Radiance Fields. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 50, no. 9, pp.1279- 1304. CERES ATBD 5 - Cloud Optical Property Retrieval Release 2.2 June2, 1997 50.
Nakajima, Teruyuki;and King, Michael D. 1990: Determination of the Optical Thickness and Effective Particle Radius of Clouds From Reflected Solar Radiation Measurements. I—Theory. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 47, pp. 1878-1893.
Nakajima, Teruyuki;King, Michael D.;Spinhirne, James D.;and Radke, Lawrence F. 1991: Determination of the Optical Thickness and Effective Particle Radius of Clouds From Reflected Solar Radiation Measurements. II—Marine Stratocumulus Observations. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 48, pp. 728-750.
Poore, K., J. Wang, and W. B. Rossow, 1995: Cloud layer thicknesses from a combination of surface and upper-air observations, J. Climate, 8, 550-568.
Radke, Lawrence F.;Coakley, James A., Jr.;and King, Michael D. 1989: Direct and Remote Sensing Observations of the Effects of Ships on Clouds. Science, vol. 246, pp. 1146- 1149.
Rajeevan and Srinivasan, 2000: Net cloud radiative forcing at the Top of the Atmosphere over Asia monsoon region. J. Climate, 13, 650-657.
Ramanathan, V., R. D. Cess, E. F. Harrison, P. Minnis, B. R. Barkstrom, E. Ahmad, and D. Hartmann, 1989: Cloud-radiative forcing and climate: results from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. Science, 243, 57-63.
Rawlins, F.;and Foot J. S. 1990: Remotely Sensed Measurements of Stratocumulus Properties During FIRE Using the C130 Aircraft Multi-Channel Radiometer. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 47, pp. 2488-2503.
Rossow, W. B., 1989: Measuring cloud properties from space. A review. J. Clim., 2, 201-213.
Rossow, William B. and Lacis, Andrew A. 1990: Global, Seasonal Cloud Variation From Satellite Radiance Measurements. Ⅱ—Cloud Properties and Radiative Effects. J. Climat., vol. 3, pp. 1204-1253.
Rossow W B, Walker A W, Garder L C, Comparison of ISCCP and other cloud amounts, J Climate, 1993, 1(6): 2394-2418.
Rossow, William B., and Y.-C. Zhang, 1995: calculation of surface and top-of atmosphere radiative fluxes from physical quantities based on ISCCP data sets, 2, validation and first results. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 1167-1197.
Rossow, W. B.;Mosher, F.;Kinsella, E.;Arking, A.;and Harrison, E. 1985: ISCCP Cloud Algorithm Intercomparison. J. Climat. & Appl. Meteorol., vol. 24, Sept.1985, pp. 877-903.
Sun B., Groisman P. Ya., 2000: Cloudness variations over the former Soviet Union. Int J Climatol, 20, 1097-1111.
Takano, Yoshihide: and Liou, Kuo-Nan 1989: Solar Radiative Transfer in Cirrus Clouds. I—Single-Scattering and Optical Properties of Hexagonal Ice Crystals. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 46, pp. 3-36.
Takano, Y.;Liou, K. N.;and Minnis, P. 1992: The Effects of Small Ice Crystals on Cirrus Infrared Radiative Properties. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 49, no. 16, pp.1487 - 1493.
Tian, L., and J. A. Curry, 1989: Cloud overlap statistics, J. Geophys. Res., 94,9925-9935.
Twomey, S. and T. Cocks, 1982: Spectral Reflectance of Clouds in the Near-Infrared—Comparison of Measurements and Calculations. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, vol. 60, pp. 583-592.
Twomey, S.;and Cocks, T. 1989: Remote Sensing of Cloud Parameters From Spectral Reflectance in the Near-Infrared. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., vol. 62, no. 3, pp.172 - 179.
Twomey, S.;and Seton, K. J. 1980: Inferences of Gross Microphysical Properties of Clouds from Spectral Reflectance Measurements. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 37, pp.1065 - 1069.
Warren, S. G., C. J. Hanh, and J. London, 1985: Simultaneous occurrence of different cloud types, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 658-667.
Weare, B C. , 2000: Near-Global observations of low clouds. J. Climate, 13, 1255-1268.
Wielicki, B. A., and Co-Authors, 1998: Clouds and the Earth' s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Algorithm Overview, IEEE Trans. Geosci. & Remote Sens., 36, 1127-1141.
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王可丽,钟强,侯萍.青藏高原地区云对地面有效辐射的影响.高原气象.1994,13 (1):57—64。
王可丽,吴国雄,江灏等.青藏高原云-辐射-加热效应和南亚夏季风.气象学报.2002,60 (2):173-180。
赵柏林,张晓黎,朱元竞.中国地区云与辐射对气候的影响 1J2.北京大学学报(自然科学版).1992,28:371-383。
Albrecht, B. , 1989: Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness. Science, 245, 1227-1230.
Brenguier, J. -L. , Pawlowska, H. , Schuller, L. , Preusker, R. , Fischer, J. , and Fouquart, Y. , 2000: Radiative properties of boundary layer clouds: Droplet effective radius versus number concentration, J. Atmos. Sci. , 5?, 803-821.
Charlock, T. and V. Ramanathan, 1985: The Albedo Field and Cloud Radiative Forcing in a General Circulation Model with Internally Generated Cloud Optics. J. Atmos. Sci. , Vol. 42, 1408-1429,
Charlson, R. J. , S. E. Schwartz, J. M. Hales, et at. , 1992: Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Science, 255, 422-430.
Chou Ming-Dah, Lindzen R. S. and Hou A. Y. Comments on "the iris hypothesis: a negative or positive cloud feedback?" . J. Clim. 2002, 15: 2713-2715
Cirrus Case Study—Spectral Properties of Cirrus Clouds in the 8-12 Micron Window. Mon. Weather Rev., vol. 118, pp. 2377-2388.
Curry, J. A., and E. F. Ebert, 1992: Annual cycle of radiation fluxes over the Arctic Ocean: sensitivity to cloud optical properties. J. Climate., 5, 1274-1280.
Chambers, Lin H., Bing Lin, and David F. Young, 2002: Examination of new CERES data for evidence of tropical iris feedback. J. Climate., 15, 3719-3726.
Coakley, James A., Jr.;Bernstein, Robert L.;and Durkee, Philip A. 1987: Effect of Ship-Stack Effluents on Cloud Reflectivity. Science, vol. 237, pp.1020 - 1022.
Curran, R. J.;and Wu, M. -L. C. 1982: Skylab Near-Infrared Observations of Clouds Indicating Supercooled Liquid Water Droplets. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 39, pp.635 - 647.
Del Genio A. D. and Wolf A. B. The temperature dependence of the liquid water path of low clouds in the Southern Great Plains. J. Clim. 2000, 13: 3465-3486
Dong, Xiquan, Patrick Minnis, and Baike Xi, 2005: A Climotology of Midlatitude Continental Clouds from the ARM SGP Central Facility: Part I: Low-level Cloud Macrophysical, Microphysical, and Radiative Properties. J. Climate, 18,1391-1410.
FeigelsonE. M. Preliminary radiation model of a cloudy atmosphere: Parti. Structure of clouds and solar radiation. Beitr. Phys. Atmos. 1978, 51:203-229
Fu, Qiang;and Liou, K. N. 1992: On the Correlated k-Distribution Method for Radiative Transfer in Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci. vol. 49, no. 22, pp. 2139-2156.
Fu, R., A. D. Del Genio, and W. B. Rossow, 1990: Behavior of deep convective clouds in the tropical Pacific deduced from ISCCP radiances. J. Climate 3, 1129-1152.
Han, Q., W. B. Rossow, and A. A. Lacis, 1994: Near-global survey of effective droplet radii in liquid water cloud using ISCCP data. J. Climate, 7, 465-497.
Hansen, J. E.;and Pollack, J. B. 1970: Near-Infrared Light Scattering by Terrestrial Clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 27, pp. 265-281.
Harrison, E. F., P. Minnis, B. R. Barkstrom, V. Ramanathan, R. D. Cess, and G. G. Gibson, 1990: Seasonal variation of cloud radiative forcing derived from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 18687-18703.
Hartmann, D. L., V. Ramanathan, A. Berroir, and G. E. Hunt, 1986: Earth radiation budget data and climate research. Rev. Geophys., 24, 439-468.
Hatzianastassiou, N. , N. Cleridou, and I. Vardavas, 2001: Polar cloud climatologies from ISCCP C2 and D2 datasets. J. Climate, 14, 3851-3862.
Khaiyer, M. M. , A. D. Rapp, P. Minnis, D. R. Doelling, W. L. Smith, Jr. , L. Nguyen, M. L. Nordeen, and Q. Min, 2002: Evaluation of a 5-year cloud and radiative property dataset derived from GOES-8 data over the Southern Great Plains. Proc. 12th ARM Science Team Meeting, St. Petersburg, FL, Department of Energy.
Kaiser, D. P. , 2000: Decreasing cloudness over China! An updated analysis examining additional variables. Geophys Res. Lett. , 27, 2193-2196.
Lin, Bing, and William B. Rossow, 1996: Seasonal variation of liquid and ice water path in nonprecipitating clouds over oceans. J. Climate, 9, 2890-2902.
Lin, B. , B. Wielicki, P. Minnis, and W. Rossow, 1998a: Estimation of water cloud properties from satellite microwave, infrared and visible measurements in oceanic environments, Ⅰ: microwave brightness temperature simulations. J. Geophys, Res. , 103, 3873-3886.
Lin, B. , P. Minnis, B. Wielicki, D. R. Doelling, R. Palikonda, D. F. Young, and T. Uttal, 1998b: Estimation of water cloud properties from satellite microwave, infrared and visible measurements in oceanic environments, Ⅱ: Results. J. Geophys, Res. , 103, 3887-3905.
Lin B. , Wielicki B. , Chambers L. , Hu Y. , and Xu K. -M. , 2002: The Iris hypothesis: A negative or positive cloud feedback? J. Clim. 15, 3-7.
Lin, Bing, and Patrick Minnis, 2003: Cloud Liquid Water Path Variations with Temperature Observed during the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBAO Experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108 (D14), 4427-4435.
Lindzen R. S. , Chou Ming-Dah and Hou A. Y. , 2001: Does the earth have an adaptive infrared iris? Bull, Am. Meteorol. Soc. 82 (3), 417-432.
Masuda, Kazuhiko;and Takashima, Tsutomu 1990: Deriving Cirrus Information Using the Visible and Near-IR Channels of the Future NOAA-AVHRR Radiometer. Remote Sens. Environ. , vol. 31, pp. 65-81.
Miles, N. L. , J. Verlinde, and E. E. Clothiaux, 2000: Cloud-droplet size distributions in low-level stratiform clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. , 57, 295-311.
Minnis, Patrick;Kratz, David P.;Coakley, James A. , Jr.;King, Michael D.;Garber, Donald;Heck, Patrick;Mayor, Shalini;Smith, W. L. , Jr.;Young, David F.;and Arduini, Robert 1995: Cloud Optical Property Retrieval. Clouds and the Earth' s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Algorithm Theoretical Basic Document, Volume Ⅲ--Cloud Analyses and Determination of Improved Top of Atmosphere Fluxes, NASA RP-1376, pp. 135-176.
Minnis, Patrick;Liou, Kuo-Nan;and Takano, Yoshihide 1993b: Inference of Cirrus Cloud Properties Using Satellite-Observed Visible and Infrared Radiances. I—Parameterization of Radiance Fields. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 50, no. 9, pp.1279- 1304. CERES ATBD 5 - Cloud Optical Property Retrieval Release 2.2 June2, 1997 50.
Nakajima, Teruyuki;and King, Michael D. 1990: Determination of the Optical Thickness and Effective Particle Radius of Clouds From Reflected Solar Radiation Measurements. I—Theory. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 47, pp. 1878-1893.
Nakajima, Teruyuki;King, Michael D.;Spinhirne, James D.;and Radke, Lawrence F. 1991: Determination of the Optical Thickness and Effective Particle Radius of Clouds From Reflected Solar Radiation Measurements. II—Marine Stratocumulus Observations. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 48, pp. 728-750.
Poore, K., J. Wang, and W. B. Rossow, 1995: Cloud layer thicknesses from a combination of surface and upper-air observations, J. Climate, 8, 550-568.
Radke, Lawrence F.;Coakley, James A., Jr.;and King, Michael D. 1989: Direct and Remote Sensing Observations of the Effects of Ships on Clouds. Science, vol. 246, pp. 1146- 1149.
Rajeevan and Srinivasan, 2000: Net cloud radiative forcing at the Top of the Atmosphere over Asia monsoon region. J. Climate, 13, 650-657.
Ramanathan, V., R. D. Cess, E. F. Harrison, P. Minnis, B. R. Barkstrom, E. Ahmad, and D. Hartmann, 1989: Cloud-radiative forcing and climate: results from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. Science, 243, 57-63.
Rawlins, F.;and Foot J. S. 1990: Remotely Sensed Measurements of Stratocumulus Properties During FIRE Using the C130 Aircraft Multi-Channel Radiometer. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 47, pp. 2488-2503.
Rossow, W. B., 1989: Measuring cloud properties from space. A review. J. Clim., 2, 201-213.
Rossow, William B. and Lacis, Andrew A. 1990: Global, Seasonal Cloud Variation From Satellite Radiance Measurements. Ⅱ—Cloud Properties and Radiative Effects. J. Climat., vol. 3, pp. 1204-1253.
Rossow W B, Walker A W, Garder L C, Comparison of ISCCP and other cloud amounts, J Climate, 1993, 1(6): 2394-2418.
Rossow, William B., and Y.-C. Zhang, 1995: calculation of surface and top-of atmosphere radiative fluxes from physical quantities based on ISCCP data sets, 2, validation and first results. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 1167-1197.
Rossow, W. B.;Mosher, F.;Kinsella, E.;Arking, A.;and Harrison, E. 1985: ISCCP Cloud Algorithm Intercomparison. J. Climat. & Appl. Meteorol., vol. 24, Sept.1985, pp. 877-903.
Sun B., Groisman P. Ya., 2000: Cloudness variations over the former Soviet Union. Int J Climatol, 20, 1097-1111.
Takano, Yoshihide: and Liou, Kuo-Nan 1989: Solar Radiative Transfer in Cirrus Clouds. I—Single-Scattering and Optical Properties of Hexagonal Ice Crystals. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 46, pp. 3-36.
Takano, Y.;Liou, K. N.;and Minnis, P. 1992: The Effects of Small Ice Crystals on Cirrus Infrared Radiative Properties. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 49, no. 16, pp.1487 - 1493.
Tian, L., and J. A. Curry, 1989: Cloud overlap statistics, J. Geophys. Res., 94,9925-9935.
Twomey, S. and T. Cocks, 1982: Spectral Reflectance of Clouds in the Near-Infrared—Comparison of Measurements and Calculations. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, vol. 60, pp. 583-592.
Twomey, S.;and Cocks, T. 1989: Remote Sensing of Cloud Parameters From Spectral Reflectance in the Near-Infrared. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., vol. 62, no. 3, pp.172 - 179.
Twomey, S.;and Seton, K. J. 1980: Inferences of Gross Microphysical Properties of Clouds from Spectral Reflectance Measurements. J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 37, pp.1065 - 1069.
Warren, S. G., C. J. Hanh, and J. London, 1985: Simultaneous occurrence of different cloud types, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 658-667.
Weare, B C. , 2000: Near-Global observations of low clouds. J. Climate, 13, 1255-1268.
Wielicki, B. A., and Co-Authors, 1998: Clouds and the Earth' s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Algorithm Overview, IEEE Trans. Geosci. & Remote Sens., 36, 1127-1141.