面孔识别中异族效应的行为与电生理学研究
|
摘要
面孔是人们在日常生活中接触最多的刺激形式之一,通过面孔识别,人们可以获得性别、年龄、种族等大量丰富的社会互动信息。在面孔识别中,异族效应是一种较为特殊的社会认知现象,表现为人们对于本种族人面孔的识别与记忆成绩要好于对外族人面孔的识别与记忆。
以往的研究中研究者多采用“再认”范式对异族效应进行研究,结果也多集中于中西方面孔之间加工方式与脑神经机制的不同。本研究刺激材料加入了黑人的面孔,主要探讨被试对三个不同种族面孔识别中出现的异族效应在记忆的编码与提取阶段表现出的形式及其神经加工机制,并进一步研究三个不同种族面孔在多维面孔空间中的相对位置关系。
本研究包含两个实验。实验一采用“学习—再认”范式,被试同时对本族面孔,欧洲面孔和非洲面孔进行学习并随后再认识别,研究三个不同种族面孔记忆编码的差异(DM效应)和提取的差异(Old/New效应)。实验二采用“连续面孔识别任务”,让被试判断经morphing method处理过的两两种族之间特征渐变的刺激图片,研究被试对种族特征变化的敏感程度,考察三个不同种族面孔在多维的面孔心理空间中的相互位置关系。
研究结果表明：1、在不同种族面孔图片的再认中,被试对本族面孔的辨别力相比异族面孔要高。2、在面孔识别的记忆编码阶段存在本族面孔加工优势,亚洲面孔的后续记忆效应显著,非洲与欧洲面孔编码成功与编码失败的项目之间差异不显著。3、在面孔识别的记忆提取阶段存在本族面孔再认优势,亚洲面孔的新旧效应显著,非洲及欧洲面孔成功再认旧面孔与正确判断新面孔之间的差异不显著。4、面孔特异性成分N170受种族特征影响,潜伏期有所差异。5、被试对本族面孔及非洲面孔种族特征变化敏感,在多维面孔心理空间中,本种族面孔表征分布于面孔空间中心周围,集中程度较小；非洲面孔较欧洲面孔与面孔空间中心距离更近,集中程度更小,欧洲面孔的表征离面孔空间中心较远,集中程度较大。
Face is the stimulation form which people most accept in the daily life. Through face recognition, people may obtain lots of information such as gender, age, race and so on. In face perception, other-race effect is a specific phenomenon of social cognition, which represents easier identification of individual faces from one's own race comparing to other-race faces.
The researchers tended to use "recognition" paradigm to study other-race effect in previous studies, and the result often concentrated in the difference of processing methods and neural mechanisms between the east and the west faces. In this article, we adds the Africa faces to the simulation materials, aiming to find the neural mechanisms in the encoding and to research the retrieval stage of face recognition and the relative position of three different race faces in the multi-dimensional face space.
Our research contains two experiments, In the first experiment we uses "recognition" paradigm to study the DM effect in encoding phase and Old/New effect in retrieval phase respectively. In the second experiment we uses sequential face identification task to study the participants'discriminability for race information change and the relative position of three different race faces in the multi-dimensional face space.
Finally, we can draw the following conclusions from the data of the research.1. The participants have higher discrimination for native faces than other-race face in the face perception.2. The advantage of face processing for different race face existed in the encoding stage of face perception, and the DM effect (difference in subsequent memory) of own race face is more significant than other two race faces.3. In the retrieval stage, participants responded stronger Old/New effect for own race, and the differences are also significant with other two races.4. The specific component N170 was affected by the race and has a difference in the latency period.5. The participants have greater sensitivity to the change of their own race and black faces'feature. And it suggests that in multiple face space participants'own race and black face are less tightly clustered than the white, and the representation of white faces needs more distance from the center of face space with stronger concentration.
以往的研究中研究者多采用“再认”范式对异族效应进行研究,结果也多集中于中西方面孔之间加工方式与脑神经机制的不同。本研究刺激材料加入了黑人的面孔,主要探讨被试对三个不同种族面孔识别中出现的异族效应在记忆的编码与提取阶段表现出的形式及其神经加工机制,并进一步研究三个不同种族面孔在多维面孔空间中的相对位置关系。
本研究包含两个实验。实验一采用“学习—再认”范式,被试同时对本族面孔,欧洲面孔和非洲面孔进行学习并随后再认识别,研究三个不同种族面孔记忆编码的差异(DM效应)和提取的差异(Old/New效应)。实验二采用“连续面孔识别任务”,让被试判断经morphing method处理过的两两种族之间特征渐变的刺激图片,研究被试对种族特征变化的敏感程度,考察三个不同种族面孔在多维的面孔心理空间中的相互位置关系。
研究结果表明：1、在不同种族面孔图片的再认中,被试对本族面孔的辨别力相比异族面孔要高。2、在面孔识别的记忆编码阶段存在本族面孔加工优势,亚洲面孔的后续记忆效应显著,非洲与欧洲面孔编码成功与编码失败的项目之间差异不显著。3、在面孔识别的记忆提取阶段存在本族面孔再认优势,亚洲面孔的新旧效应显著,非洲及欧洲面孔成功再认旧面孔与正确判断新面孔之间的差异不显著。4、面孔特异性成分N170受种族特征影响,潜伏期有所差异。5、被试对本族面孔及非洲面孔种族特征变化敏感,在多维面孔心理空间中,本种族面孔表征分布于面孔空间中心周围,集中程度较小；非洲面孔较欧洲面孔与面孔空间中心距离更近,集中程度更小,欧洲面孔的表征离面孔空间中心较远,集中程度较大。
Face is the stimulation form which people most accept in the daily life. Through face recognition, people may obtain lots of information such as gender, age, race and so on. In face perception, other-race effect is a specific phenomenon of social cognition, which represents easier identification of individual faces from one's own race comparing to other-race faces.
The researchers tended to use "recognition" paradigm to study other-race effect in previous studies, and the result often concentrated in the difference of processing methods and neural mechanisms between the east and the west faces. In this article, we adds the Africa faces to the simulation materials, aiming to find the neural mechanisms in the encoding and to research the retrieval stage of face recognition and the relative position of three different race faces in the multi-dimensional face space.
Our research contains two experiments, In the first experiment we uses "recognition" paradigm to study the DM effect in encoding phase and Old/New effect in retrieval phase respectively. In the second experiment we uses sequential face identification task to study the participants'discriminability for race information change and the relative position of three different race faces in the multi-dimensional face space.
Finally, we can draw the following conclusions from the data of the research.1. The participants have higher discrimination for native faces than other-race face in the face perception.2. The advantage of face processing for different race face existed in the encoding stage of face perception, and the DM effect (difference in subsequent memory) of own race face is more significant than other two race faces.3. In the retrieval stage, participants responded stronger Old/New effect for own race, and the differences are also significant with other two races.4. The specific component N170 was affected by the race and has a difference in the latency period.5. The participants have greater sensitivity to the change of their own race and black faces'feature. And it suggests that in multiple face space participants'own race and black face are less tightly clustered than the white, and the representation of white faces needs more distance from the center of face space with stronger concentration.
引文
[1]Morton, J.,& Johnson, M. H. CONSPEC and CONLERN:A Two-Process:Theory of Infant
Face Recognition [J]. Psychological Review,1991,98(2):164-181.
[2]杨红升,黄希庭.面孔识别异族效应的研究[J].心理科学,2008,31(6)：1450-1453.
[3]Malpass, R. S.,& Kravitz, J. Recognition for face of own and other race faces [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1969, (13):330-334.
[4]Bothwell, R. K., Brigham, J. C.,& Malpass, R. S. Cross-racial identification [J]. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin,1989, (15):19-25.
[5]张伟伟,陈玉翠,沈政.从面孔模块到马赛克—视觉特异性加工的脑机制[J].心理学报,2001,33(2)：182-188.
[6]李清,王晓辰.关于”面孔识别”的模块性的理论探讨[J].心理研究,2008,1(4)：8-13.
[7]Slatera, A.,& Quinn, P. C. Face Recognition in the Newborn Infant [J]. Infant and Child Development,2001, (10):21-24.
[8]Mondloch, C. J., Lewis, T. L.,& Budreau, D. R., et al. Face Perception during Early Infancy [J]. Psychological Science,1999,10 (5):419-422.
[9]Farah, M., Rabinowitz, C.,& Quinn, G., et al. Early Commitment of Neural Substrates for Face Recognition[J]. Cognitive Neuropsychology,2000,17 (1/2/3):117-123.
[10]Farah, M. J. The cognitive neuroscience of vision[M]. MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall, Great Britain.2000.34-36.
[11]Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J.,& Chu, M. The fusiom face area:a module perception in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception [J]. Journal of Neuroscience,1997, (17): 4302-4311.
[12]杨阳,徐青.面孔类别识别的N170和VPP的时空特异性研究[J].应用心理学,2006,12(3)：207-213.
[13]McNeil, J.,& Warrington, E. Prosopagnosia:a face-specific disorder [J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1993,46(A):1-10.
[14]Tanaka, J. W.,& Farah, M. J. Parts and wholes in face recognition [J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1993,46(A):225-245.
[15]Yin, R. Looking at upside-down faces [J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1969, (81): 141-145.
[16]Carey, S.,& Diamond, R. From piecemeal to configurational representation of faces[J].Science,1977,195:312-314.
[17]Sagiv, N.,& Bentin, S. Structural encoding of human and schematie faces:holiand Part-asked Processes [J]. Journal of Cognition Neuroscience,2001, (13):937-951.
[18]Yin, R. Face recognition by brain injured patients:A dissociable ability [J]. Neuropsychologia,1970, (8):395-402.
[19]Rhodes, G, Brake, S., Taylor, K.,& Tan, S. Expertise and configural coding in face recognition [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1989, (80):313-331.
[20]Sutton, S., Braven, M. Y.,& Zubin, J., et al. Evoked potential correlates of stimulus uncertainly [J]. Science,1965,150(3657):1187-1188.
[21]Bentin, S., Allison, T.,& Puce, A. et al. Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans [J]. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,1996,8(6):551-565.
[22]Bruce, V.,& Young, A. W. Understanding face recognition [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1986, (77):305-327.
[23]Burton, A. M., Bruce, V,& Johnston, R. A. Understanding face recognition with an interactive activation model [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1990,81:361-380.
[24]彭小虎、罗跃嘉、魏景汉、王国锋.面孔识别的认知模型与电生理学证据[J].心理科学进展,2002,10(3)：241-247.
[25]Wu, W., Luo, Y. J., et al. An Electrophysiological Study of Special Issue on Face Recognition[J]. Cognitive Brain Research,2004, (7):64-67.
[26]Kassin, S. M., Tubb, V. A., Hosch, H. M.,& Memon, A. On the "general acceptance" of eyewitness testimony research:a new survey of the experts [J]. American Psychologist,2001, (56):405-416.
[27]Meissner, C. A.,& Brigham, J. C. Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces:A meta-analytic review [J]. Psychology, Public Policy,& Law,2001, (7), 3-35.
[28]Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C, Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L.& Pascalis, O. Three-month-olds, but not newborns, prefer own-race faces[J]. Developmental Science,2005, 8(6):31-36.
[29]Slone, A. E., Brigham, J. C., & Meissner, C. A. Social and cognitive factors affecting the own-race bias in Whites[J]. Basic & Applied Social Psychology,2000,22(2):71-84.
[30]Johnson, K. J., & Fredrickson, B. L. We all look the same to me:Positive emotions eliminate the own-race bias in face recognition [J]. Psychological Science,2005,16(11): 875-881.
[31]Sangrigoli, S., Pallier, C., Argenti, A. M, Ventureyra, V. A. G,& de Schonen, S. Reversibility of the other-race effect in face recognition during childhood[J]. Psychological Science,2005, (16):440-444.
[32]Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. The social psychology of groups[M]. New York:Wiley. 1959.45-46.
[33]Malpass, R. S. An excursion into utilitarian analysis[J]. Behavior Science Research,1990, (24):1-15.
[34]Hugenberg, K., Miller, J.,& Claypool, H. Categorization and individuation in the Cross Race Recognition Deficit:Toward a solution for an insidious problem [J]. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,2007, (43):334-340.
[35]Yonelinas, A. P. The nature of recollection and familiarity:a review of 30 years of research [J]. Journal of Memory & Language,2002, (46):441-517.
[36]Diamond, R.,& Carey, S. Why faces are and are not special:An effect of Expertise [J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1986,115(2):107-117.
[37]Tanaka, J. W.,& Sengco, J. Features and their configuration in face recognition [J]. Memory and Cognition,1997, (25):583-592.
[38]Gillian, R., William, G.,& Hayward, et al. Expert face coding:Configural and component coding of own-race and other-race faces [J]. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,2006,13(3): 499-505.
[39]Valentine, T. A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion and race on face recognition[J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1991,43(A):161-204.
[40]Chiroro, P.,& Valentine, T. An investigation of the contact hypothesis of the own-race bias in face recognition[J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1995,48(A):879-894.
[41]周国梅,张璐然,曾伟贤.面孔识别的本族效应理论述评[J].心理科学进展,2009,17(2)：278-283.
[42]Sanquist, T., Rohrhaugh, J.W., Syndulko, K.,& Lindsley, D. B. Elector cortical sighs of levels of processing:Perceptual analysis and recognition memory[J]. Psychophysiology,1980, 17(6):568-577.
[43]Paller, K. A., Kutas, M.,& Mayes, A. R. Brain Neural correlates of encoding in an incidental learning paradigm[J]. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,1987, (67):360-371.
[44]George, N., Jemel, B.,& Fior, N. et al. Face and shape repetition effects in humans:A spatio-temporal ERP study[J]. NeuroReport,1997, (8):147-152.
[45]Golby, A. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E.,& Chiao, J. Y., et al. Differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces[J]. Nature Neuroscience,2001, (4):845-850.
[46]彭小虎,罗跃嘉,卫星,王国锋,魏景汉.东西方面孔异族效应机理的电生理学证据[J].心理学报,2003,35(1)：50-55.
[47]Roediger, H. L. Why retrieval is the key process to understanding human memory[A]. In:E Tulving ed. Memory, Consciousness and the brain, The Tallinn Conference[C]. Philadelphia: Psychology Press,2000.52-75.
[48]Van, P. C,& Senkfor, A. J. Memory for words and novel visual Patterns:repetition, recognition, and encoding effects in the event-related brain potential[J]. Psychophysiology,1996, 33(5):491-506.
[49]聂爱情,郭春彦,吴艳红,屈南,丁锦红.图形编码与提取的ERP研究[J].科学通报,2004,49(19)：1962-1968.
[50]Jasper H. H. The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation[J]. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,1958, (10):371-375.
[51]Sommer, W., Schweinberger, S. R.,& Matt, J. Human brain potential correlates of face encoding into memory[J]. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology,1991, (79): 457-463.
[52]Keenan, J. P., Freund, S., Hamilton, R. H., Ganis, G.,& Pascual-Leone, A. Hand response differences in a self2face identification task[J]. Neuropsychologia,2000, (38):1047-1053.
[53]Maria, D. P., Julio, M.,& Juan, M. J. Predictive validity of event-related potentials (ERPs) in relation to the directed forgetting effects[J]. Clinical Neurophysiology,2004, (115):369-377.
[54]屈南,果春彦,聂爱情,丁锦红.提取方式对相继记忆效应的影响[J].心理学报,2005,37(1)：26-33.
[55]Walker, P. M.,& Tanaka, J. W. An encoding advantage for own-race versus other-race faces[J]. Perception,2003,32:1117-1125.
[56]Paller, K. A., Vladimir, S., Bozie, C. R., Marcia, G,& Shishin, Y. Brain waves following remembered faces index conscious recollection[J]. Cognitive Brain Research,1999, (7): 519-531.
[57]Rangansth, C,& Paller, K. A. Frontal brain potentials during recognition are modulated by requirements to retrieval perceptual detail[J]. Neuron,1999, (22):605-613.
[58]Tulving, E., Kapur, S.,& Craik, F. I. M., et al. Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory:Positron emission tomography findings[J]. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA,1994, (91):2016-2020.
[59]Rossion, B., Gauthier, I.,& Tarr, M. J., et al. The N170 occipital temporal component is delayed and enhanced to inverted f aces but not to inverted objects:an electro-physiological account of face specific processes in the human brain[J]. Neuroreport,2000, (11):69-74.
[60]George, N., Evans, J.,& Fiori, N. et al. Brain events related to normal and moderately scrambled faces [J]. Cognitive Brain Research,1996, (4):65-76.
[61]Lun, Z.& Shlomo, B. Own-and Other-race categorization of faces by race, gender, and age [J]. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,2008,15(6):1093-1099.
[62]马燚娜,葛鉴桥,许晓婧,范妍,杨圣敏,韩世辉.同族和异族面孔的不对称认知神经表 征[J].科学通报,2009,54(10)：1444-1448.
[63]Correll, J., Park, B.,& Judd, C. M. et al. The police officer's dilemma:Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2002,83(6):1314-1329.
[64]彭莉,人物面部表情知觉的ERP研究[R].湖南：湖南师范大学,2007
[65]柯越海,宿兵,李宏宇,陈黎峰,戚春建,郭新军,黄薇,金建中,卢大儒,金力.Y染色体遗传学证据支持现代中国人起源于非洲[J].科学通报,2001,46(5)：411-414.
Face Recognition [J]. Psychological Review,1991,98(2):164-181.
[2]杨红升,黄希庭.面孔识别异族效应的研究[J].心理科学,2008,31(6)：1450-1453.
[3]Malpass, R. S.,& Kravitz, J. Recognition for face of own and other race faces [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1969, (13):330-334.
[4]Bothwell, R. K., Brigham, J. C.,& Malpass, R. S. Cross-racial identification [J]. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin,1989, (15):19-25.
[5]张伟伟,陈玉翠,沈政.从面孔模块到马赛克—视觉特异性加工的脑机制[J].心理学报,2001,33(2)：182-188.
[6]李清,王晓辰.关于”面孔识别”的模块性的理论探讨[J].心理研究,2008,1(4)：8-13.
[7]Slatera, A.,& Quinn, P. C. Face Recognition in the Newborn Infant [J]. Infant and Child Development,2001, (10):21-24.
[8]Mondloch, C. J., Lewis, T. L.,& Budreau, D. R., et al. Face Perception during Early Infancy [J]. Psychological Science,1999,10 (5):419-422.
[9]Farah, M., Rabinowitz, C.,& Quinn, G., et al. Early Commitment of Neural Substrates for Face Recognition[J]. Cognitive Neuropsychology,2000,17 (1/2/3):117-123.
[10]Farah, M. J. The cognitive neuroscience of vision[M]. MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall, Great Britain.2000.34-36.
[11]Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J.,& Chu, M. The fusiom face area:a module perception in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception [J]. Journal of Neuroscience,1997, (17): 4302-4311.
[12]杨阳,徐青.面孔类别识别的N170和VPP的时空特异性研究[J].应用心理学,2006,12(3)：207-213.
[13]McNeil, J.,& Warrington, E. Prosopagnosia:a face-specific disorder [J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1993,46(A):1-10.
[14]Tanaka, J. W.,& Farah, M. J. Parts and wholes in face recognition [J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1993,46(A):225-245.
[15]Yin, R. Looking at upside-down faces [J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1969, (81): 141-145.
[16]Carey, S.,& Diamond, R. From piecemeal to configurational representation of faces[J].Science,1977,195:312-314.
[17]Sagiv, N.,& Bentin, S. Structural encoding of human and schematie faces:holiand Part-asked Processes [J]. Journal of Cognition Neuroscience,2001, (13):937-951.
[18]Yin, R. Face recognition by brain injured patients:A dissociable ability [J]. Neuropsychologia,1970, (8):395-402.
[19]Rhodes, G, Brake, S., Taylor, K.,& Tan, S. Expertise and configural coding in face recognition [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1989, (80):313-331.
[20]Sutton, S., Braven, M. Y.,& Zubin, J., et al. Evoked potential correlates of stimulus uncertainly [J]. Science,1965,150(3657):1187-1188.
[21]Bentin, S., Allison, T.,& Puce, A. et al. Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans [J]. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,1996,8(6):551-565.
[22]Bruce, V.,& Young, A. W. Understanding face recognition [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1986, (77):305-327.
[23]Burton, A. M., Bruce, V,& Johnston, R. A. Understanding face recognition with an interactive activation model [J]. British Journal of Psychology,1990,81:361-380.
[24]彭小虎、罗跃嘉、魏景汉、王国锋.面孔识别的认知模型与电生理学证据[J].心理科学进展,2002,10(3)：241-247.
[25]Wu, W., Luo, Y. J., et al. An Electrophysiological Study of Special Issue on Face Recognition[J]. Cognitive Brain Research,2004, (7):64-67.
[26]Kassin, S. M., Tubb, V. A., Hosch, H. M.,& Memon, A. On the "general acceptance" of eyewitness testimony research:a new survey of the experts [J]. American Psychologist,2001, (56):405-416.
[27]Meissner, C. A.,& Brigham, J. C. Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces:A meta-analytic review [J]. Psychology, Public Policy,& Law,2001, (7), 3-35.
[28]Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C, Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L.& Pascalis, O. Three-month-olds, but not newborns, prefer own-race faces[J]. Developmental Science,2005, 8(6):31-36.
[29]Slone, A. E., Brigham, J. C., & Meissner, C. A. Social and cognitive factors affecting the own-race bias in Whites[J]. Basic & Applied Social Psychology,2000,22(2):71-84.
[30]Johnson, K. J., & Fredrickson, B. L. We all look the same to me:Positive emotions eliminate the own-race bias in face recognition [J]. Psychological Science,2005,16(11): 875-881.
[31]Sangrigoli, S., Pallier, C., Argenti, A. M, Ventureyra, V. A. G,& de Schonen, S. Reversibility of the other-race effect in face recognition during childhood[J]. Psychological Science,2005, (16):440-444.
[32]Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. The social psychology of groups[M]. New York:Wiley. 1959.45-46.
[33]Malpass, R. S. An excursion into utilitarian analysis[J]. Behavior Science Research,1990, (24):1-15.
[34]Hugenberg, K., Miller, J.,& Claypool, H. Categorization and individuation in the Cross Race Recognition Deficit:Toward a solution for an insidious problem [J]. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,2007, (43):334-340.
[35]Yonelinas, A. P. The nature of recollection and familiarity:a review of 30 years of research [J]. Journal of Memory & Language,2002, (46):441-517.
[36]Diamond, R.,& Carey, S. Why faces are and are not special:An effect of Expertise [J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1986,115(2):107-117.
[37]Tanaka, J. W.,& Sengco, J. Features and their configuration in face recognition [J]. Memory and Cognition,1997, (25):583-592.
[38]Gillian, R., William, G.,& Hayward, et al. Expert face coding:Configural and component coding of own-race and other-race faces [J]. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,2006,13(3): 499-505.
[39]Valentine, T. A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion and race on face recognition[J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1991,43(A):161-204.
[40]Chiroro, P.,& Valentine, T. An investigation of the contact hypothesis of the own-race bias in face recognition[J]. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1995,48(A):879-894.
[41]周国梅,张璐然,曾伟贤.面孔识别的本族效应理论述评[J].心理科学进展,2009,17(2)：278-283.
[42]Sanquist, T., Rohrhaugh, J.W., Syndulko, K.,& Lindsley, D. B. Elector cortical sighs of levels of processing:Perceptual analysis and recognition memory[J]. Psychophysiology,1980, 17(6):568-577.
[43]Paller, K. A., Kutas, M.,& Mayes, A. R. Brain Neural correlates of encoding in an incidental learning paradigm[J]. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,1987, (67):360-371.
[44]George, N., Jemel, B.,& Fior, N. et al. Face and shape repetition effects in humans:A spatio-temporal ERP study[J]. NeuroReport,1997, (8):147-152.
[45]Golby, A. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E.,& Chiao, J. Y., et al. Differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces[J]. Nature Neuroscience,2001, (4):845-850.
[46]彭小虎,罗跃嘉,卫星,王国锋,魏景汉.东西方面孔异族效应机理的电生理学证据[J].心理学报,2003,35(1)：50-55.
[47]Roediger, H. L. Why retrieval is the key process to understanding human memory[A]. In:E Tulving ed. Memory, Consciousness and the brain, The Tallinn Conference[C]. Philadelphia: Psychology Press,2000.52-75.
[48]Van, P. C,& Senkfor, A. J. Memory for words and novel visual Patterns:repetition, recognition, and encoding effects in the event-related brain potential[J]. Psychophysiology,1996, 33(5):491-506.
[49]聂爱情,郭春彦,吴艳红,屈南,丁锦红.图形编码与提取的ERP研究[J].科学通报,2004,49(19)：1962-1968.
[50]Jasper H. H. The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation[J]. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,1958, (10):371-375.
[51]Sommer, W., Schweinberger, S. R.,& Matt, J. Human brain potential correlates of face encoding into memory[J]. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology,1991, (79): 457-463.
[52]Keenan, J. P., Freund, S., Hamilton, R. H., Ganis, G.,& Pascual-Leone, A. Hand response differences in a self2face identification task[J]. Neuropsychologia,2000, (38):1047-1053.
[53]Maria, D. P., Julio, M.,& Juan, M. J. Predictive validity of event-related potentials (ERPs) in relation to the directed forgetting effects[J]. Clinical Neurophysiology,2004, (115):369-377.
[54]屈南,果春彦,聂爱情,丁锦红.提取方式对相继记忆效应的影响[J].心理学报,2005,37(1)：26-33.
[55]Walker, P. M.,& Tanaka, J. W. An encoding advantage for own-race versus other-race faces[J]. Perception,2003,32:1117-1125.
[56]Paller, K. A., Vladimir, S., Bozie, C. R., Marcia, G,& Shishin, Y. Brain waves following remembered faces index conscious recollection[J]. Cognitive Brain Research,1999, (7): 519-531.
[57]Rangansth, C,& Paller, K. A. Frontal brain potentials during recognition are modulated by requirements to retrieval perceptual detail[J]. Neuron,1999, (22):605-613.
[58]Tulving, E., Kapur, S.,& Craik, F. I. M., et al. Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory:Positron emission tomography findings[J]. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA,1994, (91):2016-2020.
[59]Rossion, B., Gauthier, I.,& Tarr, M. J., et al. The N170 occipital temporal component is delayed and enhanced to inverted f aces but not to inverted objects:an electro-physiological account of face specific processes in the human brain[J]. Neuroreport,2000, (11):69-74.
[60]George, N., Evans, J.,& Fiori, N. et al. Brain events related to normal and moderately scrambled faces [J]. Cognitive Brain Research,1996, (4):65-76.
[61]Lun, Z.& Shlomo, B. Own-and Other-race categorization of faces by race, gender, and age [J]. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,2008,15(6):1093-1099.
[62]马燚娜,葛鉴桥,许晓婧,范妍,杨圣敏,韩世辉.同族和异族面孔的不对称认知神经表 征[J].科学通报,2009,54(10)：1444-1448.
[63]Correll, J., Park, B.,& Judd, C. M. et al. The police officer's dilemma:Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2002,83(6):1314-1329.
[64]彭莉,人物面部表情知觉的ERP研究[R].湖南：湖南师范大学,2007
[65]柯越海,宿兵,李宏宇,陈黎峰,戚春建,郭新军,黄薇,金建中,卢大儒,金力.Y染色体遗传学证据支持现代中国人起源于非洲[J].科学通报,2001,46(5)：411-414.