戒毒者的执行功能特征研究
|
摘要
毒品依赖问题越来越严重,它会给个体的神经系统、认知功能、社会功能等各个方面带来非常严重的后果。因此,对毒品依赖背后的认知机制,并通过分析可能的缺损情况是理解成瘾行为的有效途径。在戒除毒瘾的过程中,个体往往需要付诸很大的意志努力来克服毒瘾冲动。而克服强烈习惯性反应或抵制诱惑的情境中,个体的执行功能显得格外重要。因此,本文着重研究毒品成瘾者的执行功能特征和缺损情况,以此来分析和理解戒毒者吸毒行为背后的认知机制。
虽然关于执行功能的理论和模型很多,但是本研究中所涉及的执行功能主要有抑制、注意和工作记忆能力。具体地,本研究1、采用停止信号任务,通过对比毒品成瘾者和匹配正常个体的抑制任务绩效,考察毒品成瘾者抑制控制能力的损伤情况；2、采用持续绩效任务对毒品成瘾者的持续注意和选择注意进行探求,分析其特征；此外,还采用视觉定向范式(The Visual Orienting Task, VOT)对戒毒者的内源和外源注意定向过程进行考察；3、采用经典的数字广度和语义广度对个体的数字短时记忆、数字工作记忆和语义工作记忆广度进行评估。此外,除了洞察上述三个部分的认知功能之外,本研究还试图分析不同毒品滥用者之间在缺损程度上是否存在缺损差异,且执行功能各成分的缺损程度是否存在性别差异。
本研究中招募的吸毒组被试皆选自上海市强制戒毒所(男所和女所),由司法系统配合我们招募被试；根据获得的实验组被试的年龄、性别和教育水平等特征,招募本研究的对照组被试。
研究表明：1、与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的抑制能力受损显著；男性个体在各种难度的延迟任务上均有缺损,而女性个体则相对在任务要求较高的延迟任务上缺损显著；兴奋剂依赖者的抑制缺损最严重,而海洛因依赖者和多物质滥用者缺损程度没有兴奋剂强烈,二者之间基本持平。2、与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的持续注意和选择注意缺损不显著,但线索注意警觉受损显著；但是持续注意和选择注意存在性别差异,且女性戒毒者CPT线索警觉绩效最差,线索没有起到促进作用而是起到抑制注意的作用；海洛因戒毒者线索警觉缺损最严重,线索起抑制注意作用,其次为多物质滥用者,其线索也存在抑制注意的现象,而最好的是兴奋剂依赖者,线索起到促进注意作用,但是促进不明显；与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的内源和外源注意定向过程有缺损,具体地,女性戒毒者在内源注意定向过程中缺损显著,而男性戒毒者在外源注意定向过程中受损严重；但是对于男性戒毒者来说,内源线索促进作用反而优于男性正常个体。3、与正常个体相比,戒毒者的数字短时记忆和语义工作记忆受损显著。男性戒毒者在数字短时记忆和语义工作记忆中显著低于男性正常个体,而女性戒毒者则在数字短时记忆中反而高于女性正常个体；海洛因戒毒者在工作记忆上受损最显著。4、就执行功能的三个子成分来说,效应量分析表明工作记忆受损最突出,而相对基本的认知加工——抑制和注意则受损相对较少。
此外,停止信号任务,尤其是延迟时间较长的停止信号任务,和语义工作记忆对鉴别成瘾对象、以及不同毒品依赖者认知能力最为敏感。本研究期望,研究结果可以用于进一步的毒品干预和治疗中。
With the increasing severity of drug dependence, it brings negative consequence in neural system, cognitive functions and social functions. Thus, acknowledge of underlying mechanism and analysis of potential impairment become the effective paths to comprehend addictive behaviors. During the process of drug abstinence, people need to pay much more efforts in overcoming addictive impulsivity. It highlights the executive functions in the condition of resisting strong habitual responses and temptation. Therefore, this study focused on the characteristics and impairments of executive functions of drug abusers, and then tried to understand the underlying mechanism of addictive behaviors.
Although there are massive theories and models of executive function, this study is mainly involved in inhibition, attention and working memory. In details, this study aimed at:(1) adopting stop signal task to explore the impairments in inhibition for drug abusers by comparing the performance in both drug abusers and control people; (2) employing the visual orienting task to investigate the process of covert and overt attention orienting; (3) using digit span and semantic span tasks to evaluate the short time memory, digit working memory and semantic working memory. In addition, this study also tried to analyze the differences in impairments of executive functions between different kinds of drug abusers and between males and females.
The addictive participants were recruited from correctional-based drug intervention rehabilitation cooperated by legal system. The control people were recruited according to the characteristics of age, gender and educational levels of experimental group.
This study indicated that:(1) compared to the control, drug-dependent people had impaired inhibitory ability. Male drug abusers showed deficits in all inhibitive tasks and female drug abusers showed impairments in high-demanded inhibitive tasks. Among three kinds of drug abusers, the inhibition in psycho-stimulant abusers was most severe impaired, followed by heroin abusers and polysubstance abusers which the two group had the similar degree of deficits. (2) in contrast to control people, addictive people had significant impairments in alertness, especially for female abusers in which group the clues inhibited attention instead of promotion, rather than sustained attention and selective attention. For three kinds of drug abusers, both heroin-dependent and polysubstance-dependent individuals deteriorated in attention-clued alertness task whereas psycho-stimulant abusers had comparatively superior performance than the other addictive groups but still inferior to the control. Although drug abusers showed impairments in both covert and overt attention orienting process, it suggested a gender difference that male abusers had deficits in covert attention orienting and female abusers had impairments in overt attention orienting. (3) drug abusers had impaired digit short memory and semantic working memory contrary to control individuals. Specifically, male abusers had worse performance in digit short memory and semantic working memory than male control people, whereas surprisingly female abusers had better performance in digit short memory than female control people. For three kinds of drug abusers, drug dependence brought most serious damage into heroin addictive people. (4) For the three sub-components of executive functions, the analysis of effect size illustrated that the impairment in working memory is outstanding, whereas the performance in more basic processing (i.e. inhibition and attention) was relatively impaired less than that in working memory.
Moreover, the stop signal task, especially longer delayed stop signal task, and semantic working memory were most sensitive to the discrimination of cognitive functions between addictive people and control people and also different types of drug-dependent individuals. The results of this study could be used in further intervention and treatment of addictive behaviors.
虽然关于执行功能的理论和模型很多,但是本研究中所涉及的执行功能主要有抑制、注意和工作记忆能力。具体地,本研究1、采用停止信号任务,通过对比毒品成瘾者和匹配正常个体的抑制任务绩效,考察毒品成瘾者抑制控制能力的损伤情况；2、采用持续绩效任务对毒品成瘾者的持续注意和选择注意进行探求,分析其特征；此外,还采用视觉定向范式(The Visual Orienting Task, VOT)对戒毒者的内源和外源注意定向过程进行考察；3、采用经典的数字广度和语义广度对个体的数字短时记忆、数字工作记忆和语义工作记忆广度进行评估。此外,除了洞察上述三个部分的认知功能之外,本研究还试图分析不同毒品滥用者之间在缺损程度上是否存在缺损差异,且执行功能各成分的缺损程度是否存在性别差异。
本研究中招募的吸毒组被试皆选自上海市强制戒毒所(男所和女所),由司法系统配合我们招募被试；根据获得的实验组被试的年龄、性别和教育水平等特征,招募本研究的对照组被试。
研究表明：1、与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的抑制能力受损显著；男性个体在各种难度的延迟任务上均有缺损,而女性个体则相对在任务要求较高的延迟任务上缺损显著；兴奋剂依赖者的抑制缺损最严重,而海洛因依赖者和多物质滥用者缺损程度没有兴奋剂强烈,二者之间基本持平。2、与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的持续注意和选择注意缺损不显著,但线索注意警觉受损显著；但是持续注意和选择注意存在性别差异,且女性戒毒者CPT线索警觉绩效最差,线索没有起到促进作用而是起到抑制注意的作用；海洛因戒毒者线索警觉缺损最严重,线索起抑制注意作用,其次为多物质滥用者,其线索也存在抑制注意的现象,而最好的是兴奋剂依赖者,线索起到促进注意作用,但是促进不明显；与正常个体相比,毒品成瘾者的内源和外源注意定向过程有缺损,具体地,女性戒毒者在内源注意定向过程中缺损显著,而男性戒毒者在外源注意定向过程中受损严重；但是对于男性戒毒者来说,内源线索促进作用反而优于男性正常个体。3、与正常个体相比,戒毒者的数字短时记忆和语义工作记忆受损显著。男性戒毒者在数字短时记忆和语义工作记忆中显著低于男性正常个体,而女性戒毒者则在数字短时记忆中反而高于女性正常个体；海洛因戒毒者在工作记忆上受损最显著。4、就执行功能的三个子成分来说,效应量分析表明工作记忆受损最突出,而相对基本的认知加工——抑制和注意则受损相对较少。
此外,停止信号任务,尤其是延迟时间较长的停止信号任务,和语义工作记忆对鉴别成瘾对象、以及不同毒品依赖者认知能力最为敏感。本研究期望,研究结果可以用于进一步的毒品干预和治疗中。
With the increasing severity of drug dependence, it brings negative consequence in neural system, cognitive functions and social functions. Thus, acknowledge of underlying mechanism and analysis of potential impairment become the effective paths to comprehend addictive behaviors. During the process of drug abstinence, people need to pay much more efforts in overcoming addictive impulsivity. It highlights the executive functions in the condition of resisting strong habitual responses and temptation. Therefore, this study focused on the characteristics and impairments of executive functions of drug abusers, and then tried to understand the underlying mechanism of addictive behaviors.
Although there are massive theories and models of executive function, this study is mainly involved in inhibition, attention and working memory. In details, this study aimed at:(1) adopting stop signal task to explore the impairments in inhibition for drug abusers by comparing the performance in both drug abusers and control people; (2) employing the visual orienting task to investigate the process of covert and overt attention orienting; (3) using digit span and semantic span tasks to evaluate the short time memory, digit working memory and semantic working memory. In addition, this study also tried to analyze the differences in impairments of executive functions between different kinds of drug abusers and between males and females.
The addictive participants were recruited from correctional-based drug intervention rehabilitation cooperated by legal system. The control people were recruited according to the characteristics of age, gender and educational levels of experimental group.
This study indicated that:(1) compared to the control, drug-dependent people had impaired inhibitory ability. Male drug abusers showed deficits in all inhibitive tasks and female drug abusers showed impairments in high-demanded inhibitive tasks. Among three kinds of drug abusers, the inhibition in psycho-stimulant abusers was most severe impaired, followed by heroin abusers and polysubstance abusers which the two group had the similar degree of deficits. (2) in contrast to control people, addictive people had significant impairments in alertness, especially for female abusers in which group the clues inhibited attention instead of promotion, rather than sustained attention and selective attention. For three kinds of drug abusers, both heroin-dependent and polysubstance-dependent individuals deteriorated in attention-clued alertness task whereas psycho-stimulant abusers had comparatively superior performance than the other addictive groups but still inferior to the control. Although drug abusers showed impairments in both covert and overt attention orienting process, it suggested a gender difference that male abusers had deficits in covert attention orienting and female abusers had impairments in overt attention orienting. (3) drug abusers had impaired digit short memory and semantic working memory contrary to control individuals. Specifically, male abusers had worse performance in digit short memory and semantic working memory than male control people, whereas surprisingly female abusers had better performance in digit short memory than female control people. For three kinds of drug abusers, drug dependence brought most serious damage into heroin addictive people. (4) For the three sub-components of executive functions, the analysis of effect size illustrated that the impairment in working memory is outstanding, whereas the performance in more basic processing (i.e. inhibition and attention) was relatively impaired less than that in working memory.
Moreover, the stop signal task, especially longer delayed stop signal task, and semantic working memory were most sensitive to the discrimination of cognitive functions between addictive people and control people and also different types of drug-dependent individuals. The results of this study could be used in further intervention and treatment of addictive behaviors.
引文
Ahmad, S., Ahmad, H., and Bindra, G. (1989). Cognitive impairment in chronic heroin addicts. Journal of Personality Clinical Studies,5,237-240.
Aron AR, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. (2003). Stopsignal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nature Neuroscience,6:115-116.
Aron AR, Robbins TW, Poldrack RA.2004. Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Science,8,170--177.
Badcock JC, Michie PT, Johnson L, Combrinck J. (2002). Acts of control in schizophrenia: dissociating the components of inhibition. Psychological Medicine.32:287--297.
Baddeley AD (1986). Working memory. Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer:a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences,4(11),417-423.
Band GPH, van Boxtel GJM. (1999). Inhibitory motor control in stop paradigms:review and reinterpretation of neural mechanisms. Acta Psychology,101,179--211.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York:Guilford.
Barkley, R. A. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders:XVII. ADHD, Part I:The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,39,1064-1068.
Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation:An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review,11,1-29
Bhattachary S. and Powell J.H. (2001). Recreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or'ecstasy':evidence for cognitive impairment Psychological Medicine,31(4),647-658.
Bolla KI, Brown K, Eldreth D, et al. (2002) Dose-related neurocognitive effects of marijuana use. Neurology,59,1337-1343.
Botella J., Contreras M.J., Shih P.C., and Rubio V. (2001). Two short tests fail to detect vigilance decrements. European Journal of Psychological Assessment,17,48-55.
Borgaro, S., Pogge, D.L., DeLuca, V.A., Bilginer, L., Stokes, J., and Harvey, P.D. (2003). Convergence of different versions of the continuous performance test:Clinical and scientific implications. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,25,283-292.
Botwinick J, Thompson LW. (1966). Components of reaction time in relation to sex and age. Journal of Genetic Psychology,108,175-183.
Burgess, P.W. and Shallice. T. (1996b) Bizzare responses, rule detection and frontal lobe lesions. Cortex,32,241-259.
Burgess, P.W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbit (ed) Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function. Hove:UK
Burgess, P.W.& Shallice. T. (1996a) Confabulation and the control of recollection. Memory,4(4), 359-411.
Callicott, J. H., Mattay, V. S., Verchinski, B. A., Marenco, S., Egan, M. F., and Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Complexity of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia:More than up or down. American Journal of Psychiatry,160,2209-2215.
Casswell S and Marks D. F. (1973). Cannabis and Temporal Disintegration in Experienced and Naive Subjects. Science,179 (4075),803-805.
Charles W.H. Pau, Tatia M.C. Lee, Shui-fun F. Chan. (2002). The impact of heroin on frontal executive functions. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,17:663-670
Castellanos FX, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Milham MP, Tannock R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD:beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Science,10,117-123.
Collette F, Van der Linden M. (2002). Brain imaging of the central executive component of working memory. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,26:105～125
Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WPM, Hommel B. Reduced Attentional Scope in Cocaine Polydrug Users. PLoS ONE.2009,4(6):e6043.
Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WPM, Hommel B (2007) Impaired Inhibitory Control in Recreational Cocaine Users. PLoS ONE 2(11):e1143.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Corbetta, M. (1998). Frontoparietal cortical networks for directing attention and the eye to visual locations:identical, independent, or overlapping neural systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,95,831-838.
Corbetta, Maurizio and Shulman, L. Gordon. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience,2002,3,201-215.
Dalley JW, Laane K, Theobald DEH, Pena Y, Bruce CC, Huszar AC, Wojcieszek M, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. (2007b). Enduring deficits in sustained visual attention during withdrawal of intravenous methylenedioxymethamphetamine self-administration in rats:results from a comparative study with D-amphetamine and methamphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology,32:1195-1206.
de Wit, Harriet.(2008). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use:a review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology,14,22-31.
Diamond, A. (1991). Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development. In S. Carey & R. Gelman (Eds.), The epigenesis of mind:Essays on biology and knowledge (pp.67-110). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
Dougherty DM, Mathias CW, Marsh DM et al. (2004), Suicidal behaviors and drug abuse:impulsivity and its assessment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,76, (suppl):S93-S105.
Douglas RJ. (1967). The hippocampus and behavior. Psychological Bulletin.67:416.
Duncan, J., Burgess, P. and Emslie, H. (1995) Fluid intelligence after frontal lesions. Neuropsychologia,33,261-268.
Duncan, J., Johnson, R., Swales, M. and Freer, C. (1997) Frontal lobe deficits after head injury:Unity and diversity of function. Cognitive Neuropsychology,14(5),713-741
Posner MI et al (1987) Isolating attentional systems:a cognitive-anatomical analysis. Psychobiology 15:107-121.
Eagle DM, Robbins TW. (2003a). Inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction-time task: effects of lesions of the medial striatum and d-amphetamine. Behavioral Neuroscience, 117:1302--1317.
Eagle DM, Robbins TW. (2003b). Lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex or nucleus accumbens core do not impair inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction time task. Behavioral Brain Research,146,131-144.
Eagle M. D, Baunez C, Hutcheson D, Lehmann O, Shah P A, and Robbins W R. (2008). Stop-Signal Reaction-Time Task Performance:Role of Prefrontal Cortex and Subthalamic Nucleus. Cerebral Cortex,18(1):178-188.
Eichenbaum HB, Cohen NJ. From conditioning to conscious recollection. Oxford, Oxford University Press,2001.
Ernst T, Chang L, Leonido-Yee M, Speck O. (2000). Evidence for long-term neurotoxicity associated with methamphetamine abuse:a 1H MRS study. Neurology,54,1344-1349.
Eysenck M.W. (1982). Attention and Arousa:Cognition and Performance. Berlin:Springer-Verlag.
Fishbeina D. H., Evgeny Krupitsky, Barbara A. Flannery, Doris J. Langevin, Georgiy Bobashev, Elena Verbitskaya, Cynthia B. Augustine, Karen I. Bolla, Edwin Zvartau, Barry Schech, Valentina Egorova, Natali Bushara and Marina Tsoy. (2007). Neurocognitive characterizations of Russian heroin addicts without a significant history of other drug use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,90(1),6,25-38.
Fillmore, M.T., Rush, C.R. (2002). Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,66,265-273.
Fillmore MT, Rush CR, Hays L. (2002). Acute effects of oral cocaine on inhibitory control of behavior in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,67,157--167.
Fillmore M. T., Craig R. R., and Hays L. (2006). Acute effects of cocaine in two models of inhibitory control:implications of non-linear dose effects. Addiction,101,1323-1332.
Fisk JE and Montgomery C. (2009). Evidence for selective executive function deficits in ecstasy/polydrug users. Journal of Psychopharmacology,23-40.
Fozard JL, Vercryssen M, Reynolds SL, Hancock PA, Quilter RE. (1994). Age differences and changes in reaction time:the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Journal of Gerontology,49, 179-189.
Fried PA, Watkinson B, Gray R. (1992). A follow-up-study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,14, 299-311.
Fried PA. (1995). The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective-Study (OPPS)-Methodological issues and findings-Its easy to throw the baby out with the bath water. Life Science,56,2159-2168.
Fried PA, Smith AR. (2001). A literature review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure-An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23,1-11.
Fried PA, Watkinson B. (2001). Differential effects on facets of attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,23,421-430.
Fried PA. (2002). Adolescents prenatally exposed to marijuana:examination of facets of complex behaviors and comparisons with the influence of in utero cigarettes. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42,97S-102S.
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex. New York:Raven Press.
Gao,H. Female drug abuse in China:An analysis of its attributes, patterns and consequences. The annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Royal York, Toronto.2009-10-26.
Gathercole, S.E., Willis, C., Emslie, H., and Baddeley, A. (1992). Phonological memory and vocabulary development during the early school years:A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,28,887-898.
Gauggel S, Rieger M, Feghoff TA. (2004). Inhibition of ongoing responses in patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry,75,539--544.
Gerdeman, G.L., Partridge, J.G., Lupica, C.R. and Lovinger, D.M. (2003) It could be habit forming: drugs of abuse and striatal synaptic plasticity. Trends in Neuroscience,26,184-192.
Goldman-Rakic P. S. (1996). Regional and cellular fractionation of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,93,13473-13480.
Goldstein R. Z. and Volkow N. D. (2002). Drug Addiction and Its Underlying Neurobiological Basis: Neuroimaging Evidence for the Involvement of the Frontal Cortex. The American Journal of Psychiatry,159,1642-1652.
Grier, R. A., Warm, J. S., Dember, W. N., Matthews, G., Galinsky, T. L., Szalma, J. L. et al. (2003).
The vigilance decrement reflects limitations in effortful attention, not mindlessness. Human Factors, 45,349-359.
Griffin ML, Weiss RD, Lange U (1989) A comparison of male and female cocaine abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry,46,122-126.
Guerra D, Sole A, Cami J and Tobena A. (1987). Neuropsychological performance in opiate addicts after rapid detoxification. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,20,261-270.
Hancock PA, Arthur EJ, Chrysler ST, Lee J. (1994). The effects of sex, target duration, and illumination on the production of time intervals. Acta Psychologie,86,57-67.
Hayaki J, Stein M.D., Lassor J.A., Herman D.S. and Anderson B.J. (2005). Adversity among drug users:relationship to impulsivity, Drug and Alcohol Dependence,78,65-71.
Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Little MD, Johnson MR, Melvin LS, De Costa BR, et al. Cannabinoidreceptor localization in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990;87:1932-1936.
Hershey T, Black KJ, Hartlein J, Braver TS, Barch DM, et al. (2004) Dopaminergic modulation of response inhibition:An fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research,20,438-448.
Jacobsen L K, Mencl W E, Westerveld M, et al. (2004). Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,1021:384-390.
Jentsch JD, Taylor JR. (1999). Impaired inhibition of conditioned responses produced by subchronic administration of phencyclidine to rats. Neuropsychopharmacology,24:66-74.
Jerome D. Schein. Cross-validation of the continuous performance test for brain damage[J]. Journal of Consulting Psychology.1962,26(2),115-118.
Jonides, J.,Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., and Koeppe, R. A. (1997). Verbal working memory load affects regional brain activation as measured by PET. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,9,462-475.
Joyce JN, Meador-Woodruff JH. (1997). Linking the family of D2 receptors to neuronal circuits in human brain:insights into schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology,16(6),375-384.
Kaasinen V, Nagren K, Hietala J, Farde L, Rinne JO. (2001). Sex differences in extrastriatal dopamine d2-like receptors in the human brain. American Journal of Psychiatry,158,308-311.
Koob GF, and LeMoal M. (1997). Drug abuse:hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science, 278(5335),52-58.
Kaufman, J.N., Ross, T.J., Stein, E.A., Garavan, H. (2003). Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NO/GO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience,23,7839-7843.
Kirby, K. N., Petry, N. M. and Bickel, W. K. (1999). Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards then non-drug-using controls. Journal of Experimental Psychology General,128: 78-87.
Krikorian R, Zimmerman ME, Fleck DE. (2004). Inhibitory control in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Brain Cognition,54,257--259.
Kubler A., Murphy K. and Garavan H. (2005). Cocaine dependence and attention switching within and between verbal and visuospatial working memory. European Journal of Neuroscience,21, 1984-1992.
Lappin, J. S. and Eriksen. C,W. (1966). Use of a delayed signal to stop a visual reaction time response. Journal of Experimental Psychology,12,805-811.
Leech SL, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, et al. (1999). Prenatal substance exposure:effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,21,109-118.
Logan GD, Schachar RJ, Tannock R. (1997). Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychological Science,8,60--64.
Logan. G.D. and Cowan, W.B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action:A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review,91,295-327
Logan. G.D. Cowan. W.B. and Davis. K,A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit responses in simple and choice reaction time tasks:A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance, W.276—291.
Losier, B.J. McGrath, P.J. and Klein R.M. (1996). Error patterns on the continuous performance test in non-medicated samples of children with and without ADHD:A meta-analytic review[J]. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,37(8),971-987.
Lovett, M. C., Daily, L. Z., and Reder, L. M. (2000). A source activation theory of working memory: Cross-task prediction of performance in ACT-R. Cognitive Systems Research,1,99-118.
Lynch WJ, Roth ME, Carroll ME (2002) Biological basis of sex differences in drug abuse:preclinical and clinical studies. Psychopharmacology.164:121-137.
Lyon G. R and Krasnegor N. A. (1996). Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Paul H. Brookes.
李红,王乃戈.论执行功能及其发展研究.心理科学,2004,27(2)：426～430
Mackworth N.H. (1948). The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1,6-21.
Masse, Louise C., Tremblay, Richard E. (1997). Behavior of boys in kindergarten and the onset of substance use during adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry,54(1),62-68.
McAllister, T. W, Saykin, A. J., Flashman, L. A., Sparling, M. B., Johnson, S. C., Guerin, S. J., et al. (1999). Brain activation during working memory 1 month after mild traumatic brain injury. A functional MRI study. Neurology,53,1300-1308.
McCann UD, Wong DF, Yokoi F, Villemagne V, Dannals RF, Ricaurte GA. Reduced striatal dopamine transporter density in abstinent methamphetamine and methcathinone users:evidence from positron emission tomography studies with [11C]WIN-35,428. J Neurosci 1998;18:8417-8422.
McDonald J, Schleifer L, Richards JB, et al. (2003).Effects of THC on behavioral measures of impulsivity in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology,28:1356-1365.
Miller EK, Cohen JD. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience,24:167-202.
Mintzer, M. Z.,& Stitzer, M. L. (2002). Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,67(1),41-51.
Mittenberg W, Motta S. (1993). Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on memory and learning. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,8(6),477-483.
Miyake A, Friedman N. P., Emerson M. J., Witzki A.H., Howerter A and Wager T. D. (2000).The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex "Frontal Lobe" Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology,41,1,49-100.
Moeller F. G., Barratt E. S., Dougherty D. M., Schmitz J. M. and Swann A. C. (2001) Psychiatric Aspects of Impulsivity. American Journal of Psychiatry,158:1783-1793.
Moeller FG, Dougherty DM, Barratt ES, Schmitz JM, Swann AC, Grabowski J. (2001b). The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment,21, 193-198.
Monterosso JR, Aron AR, Cordova X, Xu J, London ED.2005. Deficits in response inhibition associated with chronic methamphetamine abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend.79:273--277.
Norman DA, Shallice T (2000). "(1980) Attention to action:Willed and automatic control of behaviour". in Gazzaniga MS. Cognitive neuroscience:a reader. Oxford:Blackwell.
Ollman. R.T, (1973). Simple reactions with random countermanding of the "go" signal. In S. Komblum (Ed.). Attention and performance IV (pp.571-581). New York:Academic Press
Ornstein TJ, Iddon JL, Baldacchino AM, Sahakian BJ, London M, Everitt BJ, et al. (2000). Profiles of cognitive dysfunction in chronic amphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology,23(2), 113-126.
Osman. A, Komblum. S, and Meyer. D.E, (1986). The point of no return in choice reaction time: Controlled and ballistic stages; of response preparation. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,12,243-258.
Osman, A., Komblum. S.. and Meyer. D.E. (1990). Does response programming necessitate response execution? Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,16,183-198.
Packard MG, Hirsh R, White NM. (1989). Differential effects of fornix and caudate nucleus lesions on two radial maze tasks:evidence for multiple memory systems. Journal of Neuroscience,9 (5),1465-1472.
Pope H G, Gruber A J, Hudson J I, et al. (2001). Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Archives of General Psychiatry,58,909-15.
Pope H G. Yurgelun Todd D. (1996). The residual cognitive effects of heavy marijuana use in college students. Journal of the American Medical Association,275,521-527.
Posner, MI and Berger, A. Pathologies of brain attentional networks. (2000). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,24 (1):3-5.
Posner,M.I. and Fan, J. (2004). Attention as an Organ System. James R. Pomerantz and Michael C. Crair, Eds. Topics in Integrative Neuroscience:From Cells to Cognition. Cambridge UK:Cambridge University Press.
Posner, M. I, and Raichle M. E. (1994). Images of Mind. New York:W. H. Freeman.
Posner, M I and Petersen, S. E.1990. The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience,13:25-42.
Owen, M Adrian, McMillan, M Kathryn, Laird, R. Angela and Bullmore Ed. (2005). N-Back Working Memory Paradigm:A Meta-Analysis of Normative Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Human Brain Mapping,25:46-59.
Ramaekers G J, Kauert G, van Ruitenbeek P, Theunissen L E, Schneider E and Moeller R M. (2006).
High-Potency Marijuana Impairs Executive Function and Inhibitory Motor Control. Neuropsychopharmacology,31,2296-2303.
Rammsayer TH. (1998). Temporal information processing in male and female subjects. Study Psychology,40,149-164.
Ramsey, M.C. and Reynolds, C.R. (1995). Separate digit tests:A brief history, a literature review, and a reexamination of the factor structure of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Neuropsychology Review,5,151-171.Reay J. L, Hamilton C., Kennedy D. O. and Scholey A. B. (2006). MDMA polydrug users show process specific central executive impairments coupled with impaired social and emotional judgement processes. Journal of Psychopharmacology,20 (3),385-388.
Richardson GA, Ryan C, Willford J, et al. (2002). Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure:Effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,24:309-20.
Rieger M, Gauggel S, Burmeister K. (2003). Inhibition of ongoing responses following frontal, nonfrontal, and basal ganglia lesions. Neuropsychology,17:272--282.
Roberts, R. J.,& Pennington, B. F. (1996). An integrative framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology,12,105-126.
Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T.,& Yiend, J. (1997).'Oops!':Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia,35,747-758.
Rosovld, H, Mirsky, A, Bransome, E,& Beck, L. A continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology.1956,20:343-350.
Rubia K.2002. The dynamic approach to neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders:use of fMRI combined with neuropsychology to elucidate the dynamics of psychiatric disorders, exemplified in ADHD and schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res.130:47--56.
Rubia K, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA, Brandeis D, von Leeuwen T. (1998). Inhibitory dysfunction in hyperactive boys. Behavioral Brain Research.94:25--32.
Rubia K, Russell T, Bullmore ET, Soni W, Brammer MJ, Simmons A, Taylor E, Andrew C, Giampietro V, Sharma T.2001. An fMRI study of reduced left prefrontal activation in schizophrenia during normal inhibitory function. Schizophr Res.52:47--55.
Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Taylor E.2003. Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. Neuroimage.20:351--358.
Rylander, G. (1939). Personality changes after operations on the frontal lobes. Acta Psychiatrica Neurologica, Supplement No.30.
Sekine Y, Iyo M, Ouchi Y, Matsunaga T, Tsukada H, Okada H, et al. (2001). Methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms and reduced brain dopamine transporters studied with PET. American Journal of Psychiatry,158,1206-1214.
Sekine Y, Minabe Y, Ouchi Y, Takei N, Iyo M, Nakamura K, et al. (2003). Association of dopamine transporter loss in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices with methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry,160(9):1699-1701.
Shiffrin RM, and Schneider W (March 1977). "Controlled and automatic human information processing:Ⅱ:Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory". Psychological Review, 84(2):127-90
Smith E. E. and Jonides J. (1999). Storage and Executive Processes in the Frontal Lobes. Science, 283(12),1657-1661.
Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press; 1998.
Solowij N and Michie P. T. (2007). Cannabis and cognitive dysfunction:Parallels with endophenotypes of schizophrenia? Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience,32(1):30-52.
Solowij N, Stephens RS, Roffman RA, et al. (2002). Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment. Journal of the American Medical Association,287:1123-31.
Stevens A, Peschk I and Schwarz J. (2007) Implicit learning, executive function and hedonic activity in chronic polydrug abusers, currently abstinent polydrug abusers and controls. Addiction,102, 937-946.
Stuss, D. T. (1995). A Sensible Approach to Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurology,45,1251-1252.
Swanson J.M. Posner, M., Cantwell, D., Wigal, S., Crinella, F., Filipek, P., Emerson, J. Tucker, D., and Nalcioglu, O. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Sympton domains, cognitive processes,
and neural network. The attentive brain, Raja Parasuraman Cambridge, MA:The MIT press.445-460. Sykes, D. H., Douglas, V. I., Weiss, G.,& Minde, K. K. (1971). Attention in hyperactive children and the effect of methylphenidate (Ritalin). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,12:129-139.
Tsuchida, Ami. and Fellows, Lesley K. (2009). Lesion Evidence That Two Distinct Regions within Prefrontal Cortex are Critical for n-Back Performance in Humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(12),2263-2275.
Tarter R. E., Kirisci L, Mezzich A, Cornelius J. R.,Pajer K, Vanyukov M, Gardner William, Blackson T and Clark D. (2003). Neurobehavioral Disinhibition in Childhood Predicts Early Age at Onset of Substance Use Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry,160:1078-1085.
Tarter R.E.,Kirisci L, Reynolds M and Mezzich A. (2004). Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predicts suicide potential and substance use disorder by young adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,76, Supplement 1,7, S45-S52.
Tatia M C Lee, Charles W H Pau. (2002). Impulse control differences between abstinent heroin users and matched controls. Brain injury BI.2002,16(10) 885-889.
Tsuchida, Ami and Fellows, K. Lesley. (2009). Lesion Evidence That Two Distinct Regions within Prefrontal Cortex are Critical for n-Back Performance in Humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21 (12),2263-2275.
Wise RA, Bozarth MA. Brain reward circuitry:four circuit elements "wired" in apparent series. Brain Res Bull 1984;12(2):203-8 [Feb].
Van Etten ML, Anthony JC. (1999). Comparative epidemiology of initial drug opportunities and transitions to first use:marijuana, cocaine, hallucinogens and heroin. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 54,117-125
Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Franceschi D, Sedler M, et al. (2001b). Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. Journal of Neuroscience,21(23),9414-9418.
Volkow, N.D., Fowler, J.S., Wang, G.J. and Goldstein, R.Z. (2002). Role of dopamine, the frontal cortex and memory circuits in drug addiction:insight from imaging studies. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,78,610-624.
van den Wildenberg WP, van Boxtel GJ, van der Molen MW, Bosch DA, Speelman JD, Brunia CH. (2006). Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,18:626—636.
Vince, M.A. (1948). The intermittency of control movements and the psychological refractory period. British Journal of Psychology.38,149-157.
Verdejo-Garcia, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., and Perez-Garcia, M. (2006). Executive dysfunction in substance dependent individuals during drug use and abstinence:An examination of the behavioral, cognitive and emotional correlates of addiction. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,12,405-415.
Verdejo-Garcia AJ, Lopez-Torrecillas F, Aguilar de Arcos F, Perez-Garcia M. (2005). Differential effects of MDMA, cocaine, and cannabis use severity on distinctive components of the executive
functions in polysubstance users:a multiple regression analysis. Addictive Behavior,30(1):89-101.
Verdejo-Garcia, Antonio and Perez-Garcia, Miguel. (2006). Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users:common and differential effects on separate executive components. Psychopharmacology,190 (4),517-530.
Xu, J., Mendrek, A., Cohen, M. S., Monterosso, J. R., Simon, S., Brody, A. L., Jarvik, M., Rodriguez, P., Ernst, M., London, E. D. (2006). Effects of acute smoking on brain activity vary with abstinence in smokers performing the N-Back task:a preliminary study. Psychiatry Research,148 (2),103-109.
傅丽萍.注意缺陷多动障碍ADHD儿童的认知过程特点及其缺损机制的研究.博士论文.2006,华东师范大学.
徐岩.两种亚类型注意缺陷多动障碍儿童注意网络功能的缺损.硕士论文.2003,北京大学.
Aron AR, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. (2003). Stopsignal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nature Neuroscience,6:115-116.
Aron AR, Robbins TW, Poldrack RA.2004. Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Science,8,170--177.
Badcock JC, Michie PT, Johnson L, Combrinck J. (2002). Acts of control in schizophrenia: dissociating the components of inhibition. Psychological Medicine.32:287--297.
Baddeley AD (1986). Working memory. Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer:a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences,4(11),417-423.
Band GPH, van Boxtel GJM. (1999). Inhibitory motor control in stop paradigms:review and reinterpretation of neural mechanisms. Acta Psychology,101,179--211.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York:Guilford.
Barkley, R. A. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders:XVII. ADHD, Part I:The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,39,1064-1068.
Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation:An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review,11,1-29
Bhattachary S. and Powell J.H. (2001). Recreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or'ecstasy':evidence for cognitive impairment Psychological Medicine,31(4),647-658.
Bolla KI, Brown K, Eldreth D, et al. (2002) Dose-related neurocognitive effects of marijuana use. Neurology,59,1337-1343.
Botella J., Contreras M.J., Shih P.C., and Rubio V. (2001). Two short tests fail to detect vigilance decrements. European Journal of Psychological Assessment,17,48-55.
Borgaro, S., Pogge, D.L., DeLuca, V.A., Bilginer, L., Stokes, J., and Harvey, P.D. (2003). Convergence of different versions of the continuous performance test:Clinical and scientific implications. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,25,283-292.
Botwinick J, Thompson LW. (1966). Components of reaction time in relation to sex and age. Journal of Genetic Psychology,108,175-183.
Burgess, P.W. and Shallice. T. (1996b) Bizzare responses, rule detection and frontal lobe lesions. Cortex,32,241-259.
Burgess, P.W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbit (ed) Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function. Hove:UK
Burgess, P.W.& Shallice. T. (1996a) Confabulation and the control of recollection. Memory,4(4), 359-411.
Callicott, J. H., Mattay, V. S., Verchinski, B. A., Marenco, S., Egan, M. F., and Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Complexity of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia:More than up or down. American Journal of Psychiatry,160,2209-2215.
Casswell S and Marks D. F. (1973). Cannabis and Temporal Disintegration in Experienced and Naive Subjects. Science,179 (4075),803-805.
Charles W.H. Pau, Tatia M.C. Lee, Shui-fun F. Chan. (2002). The impact of heroin on frontal executive functions. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,17:663-670
Castellanos FX, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Milham MP, Tannock R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD:beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Science,10,117-123.
Collette F, Van der Linden M. (2002). Brain imaging of the central executive component of working memory. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,26:105～125
Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WPM, Hommel B. Reduced Attentional Scope in Cocaine Polydrug Users. PLoS ONE.2009,4(6):e6043.
Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WPM, Hommel B (2007) Impaired Inhibitory Control in Recreational Cocaine Users. PLoS ONE 2(11):e1143.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Corbetta, M. (1998). Frontoparietal cortical networks for directing attention and the eye to visual locations:identical, independent, or overlapping neural systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,95,831-838.
Corbetta, Maurizio and Shulman, L. Gordon. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience,2002,3,201-215.
Dalley JW, Laane K, Theobald DEH, Pena Y, Bruce CC, Huszar AC, Wojcieszek M, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. (2007b). Enduring deficits in sustained visual attention during withdrawal of intravenous methylenedioxymethamphetamine self-administration in rats:results from a comparative study with D-amphetamine and methamphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology,32:1195-1206.
de Wit, Harriet.(2008). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use:a review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology,14,22-31.
Diamond, A. (1991). Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development. In S. Carey & R. Gelman (Eds.), The epigenesis of mind:Essays on biology and knowledge (pp.67-110). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
Dougherty DM, Mathias CW, Marsh DM et al. (2004), Suicidal behaviors and drug abuse:impulsivity and its assessment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,76, (suppl):S93-S105.
Douglas RJ. (1967). The hippocampus and behavior. Psychological Bulletin.67:416.
Duncan, J., Burgess, P. and Emslie, H. (1995) Fluid intelligence after frontal lesions. Neuropsychologia,33,261-268.
Duncan, J., Johnson, R., Swales, M. and Freer, C. (1997) Frontal lobe deficits after head injury:Unity and diversity of function. Cognitive Neuropsychology,14(5),713-741
Posner MI et al (1987) Isolating attentional systems:a cognitive-anatomical analysis. Psychobiology 15:107-121.
Eagle DM, Robbins TW. (2003a). Inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction-time task: effects of lesions of the medial striatum and d-amphetamine. Behavioral Neuroscience, 117:1302--1317.
Eagle DM, Robbins TW. (2003b). Lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex or nucleus accumbens core do not impair inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction time task. Behavioral Brain Research,146,131-144.
Eagle M. D, Baunez C, Hutcheson D, Lehmann O, Shah P A, and Robbins W R. (2008). Stop-Signal Reaction-Time Task Performance:Role of Prefrontal Cortex and Subthalamic Nucleus. Cerebral Cortex,18(1):178-188.
Eichenbaum HB, Cohen NJ. From conditioning to conscious recollection. Oxford, Oxford University Press,2001.
Ernst T, Chang L, Leonido-Yee M, Speck O. (2000). Evidence for long-term neurotoxicity associated with methamphetamine abuse:a 1H MRS study. Neurology,54,1344-1349.
Eysenck M.W. (1982). Attention and Arousa:Cognition and Performance. Berlin:Springer-Verlag.
Fishbeina D. H., Evgeny Krupitsky, Barbara A. Flannery, Doris J. Langevin, Georgiy Bobashev, Elena Verbitskaya, Cynthia B. Augustine, Karen I. Bolla, Edwin Zvartau, Barry Schech, Valentina Egorova, Natali Bushara and Marina Tsoy. (2007). Neurocognitive characterizations of Russian heroin addicts without a significant history of other drug use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,90(1),6,25-38.
Fillmore, M.T., Rush, C.R. (2002). Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,66,265-273.
Fillmore MT, Rush CR, Hays L. (2002). Acute effects of oral cocaine on inhibitory control of behavior in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,67,157--167.
Fillmore M. T., Craig R. R., and Hays L. (2006). Acute effects of cocaine in two models of inhibitory control:implications of non-linear dose effects. Addiction,101,1323-1332.
Fisk JE and Montgomery C. (2009). Evidence for selective executive function deficits in ecstasy/polydrug users. Journal of Psychopharmacology,23-40.
Fozard JL, Vercryssen M, Reynolds SL, Hancock PA, Quilter RE. (1994). Age differences and changes in reaction time:the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Journal of Gerontology,49, 179-189.
Fried PA, Watkinson B, Gray R. (1992). A follow-up-study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,14, 299-311.
Fried PA. (1995). The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective-Study (OPPS)-Methodological issues and findings-Its easy to throw the baby out with the bath water. Life Science,56,2159-2168.
Fried PA, Smith AR. (2001). A literature review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure-An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23,1-11.
Fried PA, Watkinson B. (2001). Differential effects on facets of attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,23,421-430.
Fried PA. (2002). Adolescents prenatally exposed to marijuana:examination of facets of complex behaviors and comparisons with the influence of in utero cigarettes. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42,97S-102S.
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex. New York:Raven Press.
Gao,H. Female drug abuse in China:An analysis of its attributes, patterns and consequences. The annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Royal York, Toronto.2009-10-26.
Gathercole, S.E., Willis, C., Emslie, H., and Baddeley, A. (1992). Phonological memory and vocabulary development during the early school years:A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,28,887-898.
Gauggel S, Rieger M, Feghoff TA. (2004). Inhibition of ongoing responses in patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry,75,539--544.
Gerdeman, G.L., Partridge, J.G., Lupica, C.R. and Lovinger, D.M. (2003) It could be habit forming: drugs of abuse and striatal synaptic plasticity. Trends in Neuroscience,26,184-192.
Goldman-Rakic P. S. (1996). Regional and cellular fractionation of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,93,13473-13480.
Goldstein R. Z. and Volkow N. D. (2002). Drug Addiction and Its Underlying Neurobiological Basis: Neuroimaging Evidence for the Involvement of the Frontal Cortex. The American Journal of Psychiatry,159,1642-1652.
Grier, R. A., Warm, J. S., Dember, W. N., Matthews, G., Galinsky, T. L., Szalma, J. L. et al. (2003).
The vigilance decrement reflects limitations in effortful attention, not mindlessness. Human Factors, 45,349-359.
Griffin ML, Weiss RD, Lange U (1989) A comparison of male and female cocaine abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry,46,122-126.
Guerra D, Sole A, Cami J and Tobena A. (1987). Neuropsychological performance in opiate addicts after rapid detoxification. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,20,261-270.
Hancock PA, Arthur EJ, Chrysler ST, Lee J. (1994). The effects of sex, target duration, and illumination on the production of time intervals. Acta Psychologie,86,57-67.
Hayaki J, Stein M.D., Lassor J.A., Herman D.S. and Anderson B.J. (2005). Adversity among drug users:relationship to impulsivity, Drug and Alcohol Dependence,78,65-71.
Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Little MD, Johnson MR, Melvin LS, De Costa BR, et al. Cannabinoidreceptor localization in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990;87:1932-1936.
Hershey T, Black KJ, Hartlein J, Braver TS, Barch DM, et al. (2004) Dopaminergic modulation of response inhibition:An fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research,20,438-448.
Jacobsen L K, Mencl W E, Westerveld M, et al. (2004). Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,1021:384-390.
Jentsch JD, Taylor JR. (1999). Impaired inhibition of conditioned responses produced by subchronic administration of phencyclidine to rats. Neuropsychopharmacology,24:66-74.
Jerome D. Schein. Cross-validation of the continuous performance test for brain damage[J]. Journal of Consulting Psychology.1962,26(2),115-118.
Jonides, J.,Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., and Koeppe, R. A. (1997). Verbal working memory load affects regional brain activation as measured by PET. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,9,462-475.
Joyce JN, Meador-Woodruff JH. (1997). Linking the family of D2 receptors to neuronal circuits in human brain:insights into schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology,16(6),375-384.
Kaasinen V, Nagren K, Hietala J, Farde L, Rinne JO. (2001). Sex differences in extrastriatal dopamine d2-like receptors in the human brain. American Journal of Psychiatry,158,308-311.
Koob GF, and LeMoal M. (1997). Drug abuse:hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science, 278(5335),52-58.
Kaufman, J.N., Ross, T.J., Stein, E.A., Garavan, H. (2003). Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NO/GO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience,23,7839-7843.
Kirby, K. N., Petry, N. M. and Bickel, W. K. (1999). Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards then non-drug-using controls. Journal of Experimental Psychology General,128: 78-87.
Krikorian R, Zimmerman ME, Fleck DE. (2004). Inhibitory control in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Brain Cognition,54,257--259.
Kubler A., Murphy K. and Garavan H. (2005). Cocaine dependence and attention switching within and between verbal and visuospatial working memory. European Journal of Neuroscience,21, 1984-1992.
Lappin, J. S. and Eriksen. C,W. (1966). Use of a delayed signal to stop a visual reaction time response. Journal of Experimental Psychology,12,805-811.
Leech SL, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, et al. (1999). Prenatal substance exposure:effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,21,109-118.
Logan GD, Schachar RJ, Tannock R. (1997). Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychological Science,8,60--64.
Logan. G.D. and Cowan, W.B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action:A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review,91,295-327
Logan. G.D. Cowan. W.B. and Davis. K,A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit responses in simple and choice reaction time tasks:A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance, W.276—291.
Losier, B.J. McGrath, P.J. and Klein R.M. (1996). Error patterns on the continuous performance test in non-medicated samples of children with and without ADHD:A meta-analytic review[J]. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,37(8),971-987.
Lovett, M. C., Daily, L. Z., and Reder, L. M. (2000). A source activation theory of working memory: Cross-task prediction of performance in ACT-R. Cognitive Systems Research,1,99-118.
Lynch WJ, Roth ME, Carroll ME (2002) Biological basis of sex differences in drug abuse:preclinical and clinical studies. Psychopharmacology.164:121-137.
Lyon G. R and Krasnegor N. A. (1996). Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Paul H. Brookes.
李红,王乃戈.论执行功能及其发展研究.心理科学,2004,27(2)：426～430
Mackworth N.H. (1948). The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,1,6-21.
Masse, Louise C., Tremblay, Richard E. (1997). Behavior of boys in kindergarten and the onset of substance use during adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry,54(1),62-68.
McAllister, T. W, Saykin, A. J., Flashman, L. A., Sparling, M. B., Johnson, S. C., Guerin, S. J., et al. (1999). Brain activation during working memory 1 month after mild traumatic brain injury. A functional MRI study. Neurology,53,1300-1308.
McCann UD, Wong DF, Yokoi F, Villemagne V, Dannals RF, Ricaurte GA. Reduced striatal dopamine transporter density in abstinent methamphetamine and methcathinone users:evidence from positron emission tomography studies with [11C]WIN-35,428. J Neurosci 1998;18:8417-8422.
McDonald J, Schleifer L, Richards JB, et al. (2003).Effects of THC on behavioral measures of impulsivity in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology,28:1356-1365.
Miller EK, Cohen JD. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience,24:167-202.
Mintzer, M. Z.,& Stitzer, M. L. (2002). Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,67(1),41-51.
Mittenberg W, Motta S. (1993). Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on memory and learning. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,8(6),477-483.
Miyake A, Friedman N. P., Emerson M. J., Witzki A.H., Howerter A and Wager T. D. (2000).The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex "Frontal Lobe" Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology,41,1,49-100.
Moeller F. G., Barratt E. S., Dougherty D. M., Schmitz J. M. and Swann A. C. (2001) Psychiatric Aspects of Impulsivity. American Journal of Psychiatry,158:1783-1793.
Moeller FG, Dougherty DM, Barratt ES, Schmitz JM, Swann AC, Grabowski J. (2001b). The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment,21, 193-198.
Monterosso JR, Aron AR, Cordova X, Xu J, London ED.2005. Deficits in response inhibition associated with chronic methamphetamine abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend.79:273--277.
Norman DA, Shallice T (2000). "(1980) Attention to action:Willed and automatic control of behaviour". in Gazzaniga MS. Cognitive neuroscience:a reader. Oxford:Blackwell.
Ollman. R.T, (1973). Simple reactions with random countermanding of the "go" signal. In S. Komblum (Ed.). Attention and performance IV (pp.571-581). New York:Academic Press
Ornstein TJ, Iddon JL, Baldacchino AM, Sahakian BJ, London M, Everitt BJ, et al. (2000). Profiles of cognitive dysfunction in chronic amphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology,23(2), 113-126.
Osman. A, Komblum. S, and Meyer. D.E, (1986). The point of no return in choice reaction time: Controlled and ballistic stages; of response preparation. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,12,243-258.
Osman, A., Komblum. S.. and Meyer. D.E. (1990). Does response programming necessitate response execution? Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,16,183-198.
Packard MG, Hirsh R, White NM. (1989). Differential effects of fornix and caudate nucleus lesions on two radial maze tasks:evidence for multiple memory systems. Journal of Neuroscience,9 (5),1465-1472.
Pope H G, Gruber A J, Hudson J I, et al. (2001). Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Archives of General Psychiatry,58,909-15.
Pope H G. Yurgelun Todd D. (1996). The residual cognitive effects of heavy marijuana use in college students. Journal of the American Medical Association,275,521-527.
Posner, MI and Berger, A. Pathologies of brain attentional networks. (2000). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,24 (1):3-5.
Posner,M.I. and Fan, J. (2004). Attention as an Organ System. James R. Pomerantz and Michael C. Crair, Eds. Topics in Integrative Neuroscience:From Cells to Cognition. Cambridge UK:Cambridge University Press.
Posner, M. I, and Raichle M. E. (1994). Images of Mind. New York:W. H. Freeman.
Posner, M I and Petersen, S. E.1990. The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience,13:25-42.
Owen, M Adrian, McMillan, M Kathryn, Laird, R. Angela and Bullmore Ed. (2005). N-Back Working Memory Paradigm:A Meta-Analysis of Normative Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Human Brain Mapping,25:46-59.
Ramaekers G J, Kauert G, van Ruitenbeek P, Theunissen L E, Schneider E and Moeller R M. (2006).
High-Potency Marijuana Impairs Executive Function and Inhibitory Motor Control. Neuropsychopharmacology,31,2296-2303.
Rammsayer TH. (1998). Temporal information processing in male and female subjects. Study Psychology,40,149-164.
Ramsey, M.C. and Reynolds, C.R. (1995). Separate digit tests:A brief history, a literature review, and a reexamination of the factor structure of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Neuropsychology Review,5,151-171.Reay J. L, Hamilton C., Kennedy D. O. and Scholey A. B. (2006). MDMA polydrug users show process specific central executive impairments coupled with impaired social and emotional judgement processes. Journal of Psychopharmacology,20 (3),385-388.
Richardson GA, Ryan C, Willford J, et al. (2002). Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure:Effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,24:309-20.
Rieger M, Gauggel S, Burmeister K. (2003). Inhibition of ongoing responses following frontal, nonfrontal, and basal ganglia lesions. Neuropsychology,17:272--282.
Roberts, R. J.,& Pennington, B. F. (1996). An integrative framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology,12,105-126.
Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T.,& Yiend, J. (1997).'Oops!':Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia,35,747-758.
Rosovld, H, Mirsky, A, Bransome, E,& Beck, L. A continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology.1956,20:343-350.
Rubia K.2002. The dynamic approach to neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders:use of fMRI combined with neuropsychology to elucidate the dynamics of psychiatric disorders, exemplified in ADHD and schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res.130:47--56.
Rubia K, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA, Brandeis D, von Leeuwen T. (1998). Inhibitory dysfunction in hyperactive boys. Behavioral Brain Research.94:25--32.
Rubia K, Russell T, Bullmore ET, Soni W, Brammer MJ, Simmons A, Taylor E, Andrew C, Giampietro V, Sharma T.2001. An fMRI study of reduced left prefrontal activation in schizophrenia during normal inhibitory function. Schizophr Res.52:47--55.
Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Taylor E.2003. Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. Neuroimage.20:351--358.
Rylander, G. (1939). Personality changes after operations on the frontal lobes. Acta Psychiatrica Neurologica, Supplement No.30.
Sekine Y, Iyo M, Ouchi Y, Matsunaga T, Tsukada H, Okada H, et al. (2001). Methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms and reduced brain dopamine transporters studied with PET. American Journal of Psychiatry,158,1206-1214.
Sekine Y, Minabe Y, Ouchi Y, Takei N, Iyo M, Nakamura K, et al. (2003). Association of dopamine transporter loss in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices with methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry,160(9):1699-1701.
Shiffrin RM, and Schneider W (March 1977). "Controlled and automatic human information processing:Ⅱ:Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory". Psychological Review, 84(2):127-90
Smith E. E. and Jonides J. (1999). Storage and Executive Processes in the Frontal Lobes. Science, 283(12),1657-1661.
Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press; 1998.
Solowij N and Michie P. T. (2007). Cannabis and cognitive dysfunction:Parallels with endophenotypes of schizophrenia? Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience,32(1):30-52.
Solowij N, Stephens RS, Roffman RA, et al. (2002). Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment. Journal of the American Medical Association,287:1123-31.
Stevens A, Peschk I and Schwarz J. (2007) Implicit learning, executive function and hedonic activity in chronic polydrug abusers, currently abstinent polydrug abusers and controls. Addiction,102, 937-946.
Stuss, D. T. (1995). A Sensible Approach to Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurology,45,1251-1252.
Swanson J.M. Posner, M., Cantwell, D., Wigal, S., Crinella, F., Filipek, P., Emerson, J. Tucker, D., and Nalcioglu, O. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Sympton domains, cognitive processes,
and neural network. The attentive brain, Raja Parasuraman Cambridge, MA:The MIT press.445-460. Sykes, D. H., Douglas, V. I., Weiss, G.,& Minde, K. K. (1971). Attention in hyperactive children and the effect of methylphenidate (Ritalin). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,12:129-139.
Tsuchida, Ami. and Fellows, Lesley K. (2009). Lesion Evidence That Two Distinct Regions within Prefrontal Cortex are Critical for n-Back Performance in Humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(12),2263-2275.
Tarter R. E., Kirisci L, Mezzich A, Cornelius J. R.,Pajer K, Vanyukov M, Gardner William, Blackson T and Clark D. (2003). Neurobehavioral Disinhibition in Childhood Predicts Early Age at Onset of Substance Use Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry,160:1078-1085.
Tarter R.E.,Kirisci L, Reynolds M and Mezzich A. (2004). Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predicts suicide potential and substance use disorder by young adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,76, Supplement 1,7, S45-S52.
Tatia M C Lee, Charles W H Pau. (2002). Impulse control differences between abstinent heroin users and matched controls. Brain injury BI.2002,16(10) 885-889.
Tsuchida, Ami and Fellows, K. Lesley. (2009). Lesion Evidence That Two Distinct Regions within Prefrontal Cortex are Critical for n-Back Performance in Humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21 (12),2263-2275.
Wise RA, Bozarth MA. Brain reward circuitry:four circuit elements "wired" in apparent series. Brain Res Bull 1984;12(2):203-8 [Feb].
Van Etten ML, Anthony JC. (1999). Comparative epidemiology of initial drug opportunities and transitions to first use:marijuana, cocaine, hallucinogens and heroin. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 54,117-125
Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Franceschi D, Sedler M, et al. (2001b). Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. Journal of Neuroscience,21(23),9414-9418.
Volkow, N.D., Fowler, J.S., Wang, G.J. and Goldstein, R.Z. (2002). Role of dopamine, the frontal cortex and memory circuits in drug addiction:insight from imaging studies. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,78,610-624.
van den Wildenberg WP, van Boxtel GJ, van der Molen MW, Bosch DA, Speelman JD, Brunia CH. (2006). Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,18:626—636.
Vince, M.A. (1948). The intermittency of control movements and the psychological refractory period. British Journal of Psychology.38,149-157.
Verdejo-Garcia, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., and Perez-Garcia, M. (2006). Executive dysfunction in substance dependent individuals during drug use and abstinence:An examination of the behavioral, cognitive and emotional correlates of addiction. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,12,405-415.
Verdejo-Garcia AJ, Lopez-Torrecillas F, Aguilar de Arcos F, Perez-Garcia M. (2005). Differential effects of MDMA, cocaine, and cannabis use severity on distinctive components of the executive
functions in polysubstance users:a multiple regression analysis. Addictive Behavior,30(1):89-101.
Verdejo-Garcia, Antonio and Perez-Garcia, Miguel. (2006). Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users:common and differential effects on separate executive components. Psychopharmacology,190 (4),517-530.
Xu, J., Mendrek, A., Cohen, M. S., Monterosso, J. R., Simon, S., Brody, A. L., Jarvik, M., Rodriguez, P., Ernst, M., London, E. D. (2006). Effects of acute smoking on brain activity vary with abstinence in smokers performing the N-Back task:a preliminary study. Psychiatry Research,148 (2),103-109.
傅丽萍.注意缺陷多动障碍ADHD儿童的认知过程特点及其缺损机制的研究.博士论文.2006,华东师范大学.
徐岩.两种亚类型注意缺陷多动障碍儿童注意网络功能的缺损.硕士论文.2003,北京大学.
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |