学习障碍儿童心理行为特点及工作记忆的fMRI研究
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摘要
目的:
1、探讨儿童学习障碍( Learning disability,LD)的流行特征、危险因素;
2、探讨LD儿童心理行为特征;
3、采用功能性磁共振成像技术( fMRI)探讨LD儿童认知的脑机制。
方法:
1、现场流行病学调查:运用整群随机抽样的方法抽取武汉市2所学校3~6年级学生进行调查。
2、LD的筛查与诊断:采用修订版的儿童学习障碍筛查量表( The Pupil Rating Scale Revised Screening for Learning Disability,PRS)进行的筛查。结合中国精神疾病分类方案与诊断标准(CCMD-2-R)标准、儿童学习成绩、智力水平并排除视、听觉障碍及多动和器质性病变进行诊断。
3、心理特征评定:儿童智力水平、人格、生活质量评定分别采用联合型瑞文测验(Combined Raven’s Test,CRT)、艾森克人格问卷(Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, EPQ)、儿少主观生活质量问卷(Subjective Quality of Life Scales ,SQOL)。
4、fMRI研究:采用用美国GE公司生产MRI( Singa l.5T CV/I)超导型机进行工作记忆的功能性磁共振研究。工作记忆程序采用组块设计(blocked design)和事件相关实验设计(event-related design)的实验范式进行。
结果:
1、儿童学习障碍流行病学特点及其影响因素研究
运用整群随机抽样的方法抽取武汉市2所学校3~6年级学生共947名进行调查,剔除表格不完整(缺、漏项)者,共获有效样本903份,有效率为95.35%。
(1)LD的发生率为9.97%(其中男性为11.69%、女性为7.86%),男女之间差别没有显著性(x2=3.66,P>0.05)。
( 2) LD儿童行为问题发生率为28.89%,明显高于正常儿童(19.31%)(x2=4.60,P<0.05)。正常儿童男性发生率为15.53%,女性为23.73%,男性明显低于女性(x2=8.74,P<0.01),而LD儿童男女行为问题发生率没有性别差异(男性:27.59%,女性:31.25%,x2=0.134, P<0.05)。
(3)多因素Logistic回归分析表明,年龄是男性发生LD的保护因素(OR=1.293,95%CI为0.958～1.747),父亲文化低、单亲家庭、教育态度不一致、存在多动行为是男性LD发生的危险因素(OR分别是0.609、0.237、0.258、0.963);独生子女是女性LD的保护因素(OR=0.282,95%CI为0.125～0.632),父母教育态度不一致、存在违纪行为是女性LD的危险因素(OR分别为0.248、0.657)。
2、学习障碍儿童心理行为特征的病例对照研究
对诊断为LD的90例(男60例,女30例)儿童,按1:1配对选取与LD碍儿童同班级、同年龄(±3个月)、同性别并且学习成绩位于班级中等水平的正常儿童作为对照组进行心理行为特征的研究。
(1)LD儿童智力水平(IQ为92.67±11.65)明显低于正常组(108.28±11.95),LD儿童智力水平中等以上者(65.50%)明显少于正常组(95.60%),而中等以下者明显多于正常组,其差异有显著性统计学意义(х2=9.21,P<0.01)。说明LD儿童的视觉能力、视记忆的组织、整合以及视觉结构能力存在障碍,LD儿童的抽象思维能力明显低下。
( 2) LD儿童EPQ量表P、N分量表标准分( 55.39±8.25、52.11±12.83)明显高于正常儿童( 52.72±8.18、48.06±12.45),差异具有显著性统计学意义(P分别小于0.01和0.05),说明LD儿童人格特征具有高精神质,高情绪不稳定的人格特点。
(3)主观生活质量量表测试结果表明,除同伴交往和躯体情感外,其余各因子分及总分均明显低于正常儿童(P<0.05),说明LD儿童主观生活质量较正常儿童差。
3、学习障碍( LD)儿童工作记忆的FMRI研究
采用知情同意的方法,选择LD儿童和正常各12名分别作为试验组和对照组进行工作记忆的功能性磁共振成像研究。所有被试者均为智力正常(IQ>85),右利手,视觉正常,家族中没有癫痫和其他神经系统疾病。
(1)比较分析两组儿童脑部激活区域及强度的差异发现,两组儿童共同激活的脑部区域主要有两侧额叶及其靠近中央前回的区域,其次是顶叶和枕叶等皮质区域。
(2)正常组在左侧额上回、右侧额中回两个区域的激活强度高于LD组( P< 0.05),顶叶和枕叶差异无显著性。说明LD儿童可能在暂存记忆的编码、储存、提取复述等过程中存在缺陷,也可能和注意缺陷和保持障碍有关,提示前额叶皮质可能存在功能发育不全或缺陷。结论
通过以上研究,我们得出以下结论:
1、LD的发生率为9.97%,与国内有关报道基本一致。LD儿童存在较多的行为问题。家庭因素(父母文化、家庭类型、父母教育态度等)和儿童行为问题(多动、违纪)对LD的发生和发展具有一定预测作用。影响LD的各种因素是相互联系、相互渗透、相互影响的,如何多层次、多方位、更加全面系统的分析LD的影响因素是有待进一步研究的课题。
2、LD儿童智力水平明显低于正常组,智力水平中等以上者明显少于正常组。说明LD儿童的视觉能力、视记忆的组织、整合以及视觉结构能力存在障碍,LD儿童的抽象思维能力明显低下。
3、LD儿童人格特征具有高精神质,高情绪不稳定的人格特点,LD儿童主观生活质量较正常儿童差。
4、fMRI研究表明, LD儿童左侧额上回、右侧额中回两个区域的激活强度明显低于正常组(P<0.05),提示LD儿童前额叶皮质可能存在功能发育不全或缺陷。LD儿童工作记忆的fMRI研究为今后该领域的研究奠定了重要的基础。
创新点:
本研究是国家自然基金项目(30271132)的一部分,采用现场流行病学调查和临床实验研究相结合,从生物、心理、社会等方面探索儿童LD产生的原因、心理行为特征及大脑活动机制,具有以下特点:
1、多学科交叉、渗透,涉及心理学、行为科学、医学(基础医学、预防医学、临床医学)等多学科领域;
2、研究内容丰富、全面,涵盖LD儿童的危险因素、行为特征、认知能力特征、人格特征以及神经生理机制;
3、研究方法和手段具有创新性,在国内首次采用功能性磁共振技术研究LD儿童工作记忆过程中的大脑活动状况。
Objectives
1.To explore the epidemic characteristics and risk factors of children with learning disability (LD).
2.To study psychological characteristics of children with learning disability.
3. To explore the brain mechanism of cognition of children with LD by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Methods
1.Epidemic research The samples were obtained by cluster-sampling from grade 3 to 6 in 2 primary schools of Wuhan.
2. Screening and diagnosis of LD The screening of children with LD were conducted by using Pupil Rating Scale Revised Screening for Learning Disability(PRS),and combined with Chinese Classification ofMentalDisease(CCMD-2),intelligencelevel,academicachievement ,and got rid of visual-acoustic disorder, hyperactivity and organic disease, the LD was diagnosed.
3. Evaluation of psychological characteristics The intelligence level, personality and quality of life were evaluated by using Combined Raven’s Test(CRT),Eysenck Personality Questionnaire(EPQ) and Subjective Quality of Life(SQOL),respectively.
4. fMRI test MRI superconductivity machine (Singa l.5T CV/i) produced by American GE Corporation was used to test the brain acting status when the children executed the working-memory tasks. And the procedure of working memory waswork out according to blocked-design and event-related design .
Results
1. Research on epidemiological character and influence factors of children with LD
Nine hundred and forty seven children were studied, and the effective samples were 907 by rejecting incomplete samples( effective rate was 95.35 %.).
(1) The prevalence of LD was 9.97% (males were 11.69%, females were 7.86%), and there was no significant difference between male students and female students(x2=3.66, P>0.05).
(2) The prevalence of behavior problem of learning disability children was 28.89%, and obviously higher than that of normal children (19.31%) (x2=4.60, P<0.05). The prevalence of behavior problem of normal children had significant difference in sex(males were 15.53%,females were 23.73%, respectively, x2=8.74, P<0.01), but that of LD children were no difference in sex(males were 27.59%,females were 31.52%, respectively, x2=0.134, P>0.05).
(3) Multi-factors logistic analysis indicated that age was protective factors of male students of LD(OR=1.293 , 95%CI were 0.958～1.747) , while lower parents’culture degree, single parent family, inconsistent parents’teaching patterns and have hyperactivity were risk factors of male students with LD(OR value were 0.609、0.237、0.258、0.963,respectively). Only child was protective factors of female students with LD(OR=0.282,95%CI were 0.125～0.632) , while inconsistent parents’teaching patterns and have violation of discipline were risk factors of female students with LD(OR value were 0.248、0.657, respectively).
2. Case-control study on mental characters of children with learning disability
Ninety children with LD were diagnosed (male: 60, female: 30), and certain normal children with middling academic records were selected as control group according to 1:1 in the same class, age (±3 month) and sex.
(1) The intelligence level of learning disability children (IQ: 92.67±11.65) was obviously lower than that of normal group (IQ: 108.28±11.95). The ratio of IQ which above middle intelligence level among LD children account of 65.5%,and was less than the control group(95.6%) obviously(X2=9.21 , P<0.01) .It showed that learning disability children’s visual integration, organization ability, as well as the vision structural capacity and abstract thinking ability had deficiencies.
(2) The standard scores of subscales of N and P of EPQ in children with Learning disability (P:55.39±8.25、N:52.11±12.83) were higher than that of normal children (P: 52.72±8.18、N:48.06±12.45) significantly (P<0.01 and 0.05,respectively). It hinted that learning disability children had high spiritual nature and unstable personality characteristic.
(3) Except the partner communication and physical feeling, the scores of other factors and total scores of SQOL in children with LD were lower than that of control group significantly(P<0.05). It indicated that the quality of life of children with learning disability was worse than that of normal children.
3. fMRI study on working memory of children with learning disabilities With agreement of the subjects, 12 learning disability children and same-amount normal children were selected respectively as the case and control group to implement the fMRI on working memory, and all of the children were right handedness and had normal intelligence (IQ>85) and vision, and the children’s families didn’t have epilepsy or other nervous system diseases.
(1) The comparison of two groups of children in active brain regions and intensity indicated that the same active brain regions were mainly located on two-side lobus frontal cortex and the near regions of anterior central gyrus, next was the lobus parietal cortex and lobus occipital cortex.
(2) Active intensity of control group was higher than the LD group in the regions of left superior frontal gyrus and right midfrontal gyrus (P <0.05), but there was no significant difference in lobus parietal cortex and lobus occipital cortex. The results indicated that learning disability children had some deficiency in the process of temporary memory, such as coding, storing, extracting, and repeating et al, and was also related possibly with the attention dysfunction or maintenance disorder. It hinted that frontal cortex had hypoplasia or functional dysfunction probably.
Conclusions
1. The above results showed that the prevalence of LD is 9.97% (male is 11.69%, female is 7.86%), which was consistent with the domestic reports. Children with learning disability had more behavioral problems. The family factor (parents’education, family type, parents’education attitude and so on) and the child behavioral problems (poly-motion, violation of regulations) had some certain forecasting function for the occurrence and the development of learning disabilities. The results showed that various influence factors of LD were intercommunication and interaction. It was very difficult to eliminate the interference of other factors. How to analysis the etiological factor of LD in the multistrata, aspect and overall level will deserve to study further.
2. The intelligence level of learning disability children was obviously lower than normal group’s. The ratio of IQ, which above middle intelligence level among LD children, was less than the control group obviously. It showed that learning disability children’s visual integration, organization ability, as well as the vision structural capacity and abstract thinking ability had deficiencies.
3. Learning disability children had high spiritual nature and unstable personality characteristic. And their quality of life was worse than that of normal children.
4. fMRI research indicated the active intensity of LD group was weaker than the normal group in the regions of left superior frontal gyrus and right midfrontal gyrus. It hinted that frontal cortex had hypoplasia or functional dysfunction probably. And fMRI study of working memory of LD children would provide important basis for researching on this aspect.
New Ideas
The research was a part of National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.30271132). Combined with epidemic investigation and clinic research, the cause, psychological characteristic and brain mechanism of LD were studied, and the new ideas as follows:
1.This research involved in many domains, such as psychology, behavioral science, medicine, and so on.
2.This research involved in risk factors, psychological characteristics and neuro-physiological mechanism of children with LD.
3.The research methods and instruments were new, and fMRI test was first applied to study the activity of brain of LD children while executing working memory tasks in China.
1、探讨儿童学习障碍( Learning disability,LD)的流行特征、危险因素;
2、探讨LD儿童心理行为特征;
3、采用功能性磁共振成像技术( fMRI)探讨LD儿童认知的脑机制。
方法:
1、现场流行病学调查:运用整群随机抽样的方法抽取武汉市2所学校3~6年级学生进行调查。
2、LD的筛查与诊断:采用修订版的儿童学习障碍筛查量表( The Pupil Rating Scale Revised Screening for Learning Disability,PRS)进行的筛查。结合中国精神疾病分类方案与诊断标准(CCMD-2-R)标准、儿童学习成绩、智力水平并排除视、听觉障碍及多动和器质性病变进行诊断。
3、心理特征评定:儿童智力水平、人格、生活质量评定分别采用联合型瑞文测验(Combined Raven’s Test,CRT)、艾森克人格问卷(Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, EPQ)、儿少主观生活质量问卷(Subjective Quality of Life Scales ,SQOL)。
4、fMRI研究:采用用美国GE公司生产MRI( Singa l.5T CV/I)超导型机进行工作记忆的功能性磁共振研究。工作记忆程序采用组块设计(blocked design)和事件相关实验设计(event-related design)的实验范式进行。
结果:
1、儿童学习障碍流行病学特点及其影响因素研究
运用整群随机抽样的方法抽取武汉市2所学校3~6年级学生共947名进行调查,剔除表格不完整(缺、漏项)者,共获有效样本903份,有效率为95.35%。
(1)LD的发生率为9.97%(其中男性为11.69%、女性为7.86%),男女之间差别没有显著性(x2=3.66,P>0.05)。
( 2) LD儿童行为问题发生率为28.89%,明显高于正常儿童(19.31%)(x2=4.60,P<0.05)。正常儿童男性发生率为15.53%,女性为23.73%,男性明显低于女性(x2=8.74,P<0.01),而LD儿童男女行为问题发生率没有性别差异(男性:27.59%,女性:31.25%,x2=0.134, P<0.05)。
(3)多因素Logistic回归分析表明,年龄是男性发生LD的保护因素(OR=1.293,95%CI为0.958～1.747),父亲文化低、单亲家庭、教育态度不一致、存在多动行为是男性LD发生的危险因素(OR分别是0.609、0.237、0.258、0.963);独生子女是女性LD的保护因素(OR=0.282,95%CI为0.125～0.632),父母教育态度不一致、存在违纪行为是女性LD的危险因素(OR分别为0.248、0.657)。
2、学习障碍儿童心理行为特征的病例对照研究
对诊断为LD的90例(男60例,女30例)儿童,按1:1配对选取与LD碍儿童同班级、同年龄(±3个月)、同性别并且学习成绩位于班级中等水平的正常儿童作为对照组进行心理行为特征的研究。
(1)LD儿童智力水平(IQ为92.67±11.65)明显低于正常组(108.28±11.95),LD儿童智力水平中等以上者(65.50%)明显少于正常组(95.60%),而中等以下者明显多于正常组,其差异有显著性统计学意义(х2=9.21,P<0.01)。说明LD儿童的视觉能力、视记忆的组织、整合以及视觉结构能力存在障碍,LD儿童的抽象思维能力明显低下。
( 2) LD儿童EPQ量表P、N分量表标准分( 55.39±8.25、52.11±12.83)明显高于正常儿童( 52.72±8.18、48.06±12.45),差异具有显著性统计学意义(P分别小于0.01和0.05),说明LD儿童人格特征具有高精神质,高情绪不稳定的人格特点。
(3)主观生活质量量表测试结果表明,除同伴交往和躯体情感外,其余各因子分及总分均明显低于正常儿童(P<0.05),说明LD儿童主观生活质量较正常儿童差。
3、学习障碍( LD)儿童工作记忆的FMRI研究
采用知情同意的方法,选择LD儿童和正常各12名分别作为试验组和对照组进行工作记忆的功能性磁共振成像研究。所有被试者均为智力正常(IQ>85),右利手,视觉正常,家族中没有癫痫和其他神经系统疾病。
(1)比较分析两组儿童脑部激活区域及强度的差异发现,两组儿童共同激活的脑部区域主要有两侧额叶及其靠近中央前回的区域,其次是顶叶和枕叶等皮质区域。
(2)正常组在左侧额上回、右侧额中回两个区域的激活强度高于LD组( P< 0.05),顶叶和枕叶差异无显著性。说明LD儿童可能在暂存记忆的编码、储存、提取复述等过程中存在缺陷,也可能和注意缺陷和保持障碍有关,提示前额叶皮质可能存在功能发育不全或缺陷。结论
通过以上研究,我们得出以下结论:
1、LD的发生率为9.97%,与国内有关报道基本一致。LD儿童存在较多的行为问题。家庭因素(父母文化、家庭类型、父母教育态度等)和儿童行为问题(多动、违纪)对LD的发生和发展具有一定预测作用。影响LD的各种因素是相互联系、相互渗透、相互影响的,如何多层次、多方位、更加全面系统的分析LD的影响因素是有待进一步研究的课题。
2、LD儿童智力水平明显低于正常组,智力水平中等以上者明显少于正常组。说明LD儿童的视觉能力、视记忆的组织、整合以及视觉结构能力存在障碍,LD儿童的抽象思维能力明显低下。
3、LD儿童人格特征具有高精神质,高情绪不稳定的人格特点,LD儿童主观生活质量较正常儿童差。
4、fMRI研究表明, LD儿童左侧额上回、右侧额中回两个区域的激活强度明显低于正常组(P<0.05),提示LD儿童前额叶皮质可能存在功能发育不全或缺陷。LD儿童工作记忆的fMRI研究为今后该领域的研究奠定了重要的基础。
创新点:
本研究是国家自然基金项目(30271132)的一部分,采用现场流行病学调查和临床实验研究相结合,从生物、心理、社会等方面探索儿童LD产生的原因、心理行为特征及大脑活动机制,具有以下特点:
1、多学科交叉、渗透,涉及心理学、行为科学、医学(基础医学、预防医学、临床医学)等多学科领域;
2、研究内容丰富、全面,涵盖LD儿童的危险因素、行为特征、认知能力特征、人格特征以及神经生理机制;
3、研究方法和手段具有创新性,在国内首次采用功能性磁共振技术研究LD儿童工作记忆过程中的大脑活动状况。
Objectives
1.To explore the epidemic characteristics and risk factors of children with learning disability (LD).
2.To study psychological characteristics of children with learning disability.
3. To explore the brain mechanism of cognition of children with LD by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Methods
1.Epidemic research The samples were obtained by cluster-sampling from grade 3 to 6 in 2 primary schools of Wuhan.
2. Screening and diagnosis of LD The screening of children with LD were conducted by using Pupil Rating Scale Revised Screening for Learning Disability(PRS),and combined with Chinese Classification ofMentalDisease(CCMD-2),intelligencelevel,academicachievement ,and got rid of visual-acoustic disorder, hyperactivity and organic disease, the LD was diagnosed.
3. Evaluation of psychological characteristics The intelligence level, personality and quality of life were evaluated by using Combined Raven’s Test(CRT),Eysenck Personality Questionnaire(EPQ) and Subjective Quality of Life(SQOL),respectively.
4. fMRI test MRI superconductivity machine (Singa l.5T CV/i) produced by American GE Corporation was used to test the brain acting status when the children executed the working-memory tasks. And the procedure of working memory waswork out according to blocked-design and event-related design .
Results
1. Research on epidemiological character and influence factors of children with LD
Nine hundred and forty seven children were studied, and the effective samples were 907 by rejecting incomplete samples( effective rate was 95.35 %.).
(1) The prevalence of LD was 9.97% (males were 11.69%, females were 7.86%), and there was no significant difference between male students and female students(x2=3.66, P>0.05).
(2) The prevalence of behavior problem of learning disability children was 28.89%, and obviously higher than that of normal children (19.31%) (x2=4.60, P<0.05). The prevalence of behavior problem of normal children had significant difference in sex(males were 15.53%,females were 23.73%, respectively, x2=8.74, P<0.01), but that of LD children were no difference in sex(males were 27.59%,females were 31.52%, respectively, x2=0.134, P>0.05).
(3) Multi-factors logistic analysis indicated that age was protective factors of male students of LD(OR=1.293 , 95%CI were 0.958～1.747) , while lower parents’culture degree, single parent family, inconsistent parents’teaching patterns and have hyperactivity were risk factors of male students with LD(OR value were 0.609、0.237、0.258、0.963,respectively). Only child was protective factors of female students with LD(OR=0.282,95%CI were 0.125～0.632) , while inconsistent parents’teaching patterns and have violation of discipline were risk factors of female students with LD(OR value were 0.248、0.657, respectively).
2. Case-control study on mental characters of children with learning disability
Ninety children with LD were diagnosed (male: 60, female: 30), and certain normal children with middling academic records were selected as control group according to 1:1 in the same class, age (±3 month) and sex.
(1) The intelligence level of learning disability children (IQ: 92.67±11.65) was obviously lower than that of normal group (IQ: 108.28±11.95). The ratio of IQ which above middle intelligence level among LD children account of 65.5%,and was less than the control group(95.6%) obviously(X2=9.21 , P<0.01) .It showed that learning disability children’s visual integration, organization ability, as well as the vision structural capacity and abstract thinking ability had deficiencies.
(2) The standard scores of subscales of N and P of EPQ in children with Learning disability (P:55.39±8.25、N:52.11±12.83) were higher than that of normal children (P: 52.72±8.18、N:48.06±12.45) significantly (P<0.01 and 0.05,respectively). It hinted that learning disability children had high spiritual nature and unstable personality characteristic.
(3) Except the partner communication and physical feeling, the scores of other factors and total scores of SQOL in children with LD were lower than that of control group significantly(P<0.05). It indicated that the quality of life of children with learning disability was worse than that of normal children.
3. fMRI study on working memory of children with learning disabilities With agreement of the subjects, 12 learning disability children and same-amount normal children were selected respectively as the case and control group to implement the fMRI on working memory, and all of the children were right handedness and had normal intelligence (IQ>85) and vision, and the children’s families didn’t have epilepsy or other nervous system diseases.
(1) The comparison of two groups of children in active brain regions and intensity indicated that the same active brain regions were mainly located on two-side lobus frontal cortex and the near regions of anterior central gyrus, next was the lobus parietal cortex and lobus occipital cortex.
(2) Active intensity of control group was higher than the LD group in the regions of left superior frontal gyrus and right midfrontal gyrus (P <0.05), but there was no significant difference in lobus parietal cortex and lobus occipital cortex. The results indicated that learning disability children had some deficiency in the process of temporary memory, such as coding, storing, extracting, and repeating et al, and was also related possibly with the attention dysfunction or maintenance disorder. It hinted that frontal cortex had hypoplasia or functional dysfunction probably.
Conclusions
1. The above results showed that the prevalence of LD is 9.97% (male is 11.69%, female is 7.86%), which was consistent with the domestic reports. Children with learning disability had more behavioral problems. The family factor (parents’education, family type, parents’education attitude and so on) and the child behavioral problems (poly-motion, violation of regulations) had some certain forecasting function for the occurrence and the development of learning disabilities. The results showed that various influence factors of LD were intercommunication and interaction. It was very difficult to eliminate the interference of other factors. How to analysis the etiological factor of LD in the multistrata, aspect and overall level will deserve to study further.
2. The intelligence level of learning disability children was obviously lower than normal group’s. The ratio of IQ, which above middle intelligence level among LD children, was less than the control group obviously. It showed that learning disability children’s visual integration, organization ability, as well as the vision structural capacity and abstract thinking ability had deficiencies.
3. Learning disability children had high spiritual nature and unstable personality characteristic. And their quality of life was worse than that of normal children.
4. fMRI research indicated the active intensity of LD group was weaker than the normal group in the regions of left superior frontal gyrus and right midfrontal gyrus. It hinted that frontal cortex had hypoplasia or functional dysfunction probably. And fMRI study of working memory of LD children would provide important basis for researching on this aspect.
New Ideas
The research was a part of National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.30271132). Combined with epidemic investigation and clinic research, the cause, psychological characteristic and brain mechanism of LD were studied, and the new ideas as follows:
1.This research involved in many domains, such as psychology, behavioral science, medicine, and so on.
2.This research involved in risk factors, psychological characteristics and neuro-physiological mechanism of children with LD.
3.The research methods and instruments were new, and fMRI test was first applied to study the activity of brain of LD children while executing working memory tasks in China.
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