巴厘岛梯田景观苏巴克灌溉系统及其生态水文效应研究进展
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摘要
灌溉系统通过调配水资源而改变农业景观中的生态-水文格局与过程,以便维持其稳定性。印尼巴厘岛苏巴克灌溉系统是当地人民有效调控梯田景观水生态格局与过程的智慧结晶,是巴厘岛梯田景观可持续发展的关键机制。本文以有关苏巴克灌溉系统的已发表文献为数据来源,阐述其在流域和灌区尺度提高农业水资源利用功能、保障梯田景观可持续发展的机制,并分析时空管理带来的生态水文效应。在流域尺度上,多层级水寺庙管理结构动态协调水资源的分配;而灌区尺度上,tek-tek分水制度和awig-awig管理制度保障水资源高利用率,并缓解社区用水矛盾。苏巴克灌溉系统通过灌溉设施和水资源的时空管理活动使其具有增加水文连通性、控制虫害和提高生态系统服务功能等生态水文效应。已有苏巴克灌溉系统的研究以社会学、人类学、历史学等社会科学的定性和静态研究为主,而生态学、水文学等自然科学研究相对较少,未来应加强自然科学及多学科交叉的量化和动态研究,为世界上其他梯田系统保护和管理提供启示。
Irrigation system could regulate eco-hydrological pattern and process of agricultural landscape to maintain its sustainability through management of water resources. In Bali of Indonesia,a traditional Indonesian Subak Irrigation System( SIS) is the wisdom of local people to effectively regulate eco-hydrological pattern and process of terraced landscapes,which is the key mechanism underlying the sustainability of Rice Terraces Landscapes( RTL). We used the published literatures on SIS as a data source to review its mechanisms in ensuring the sustainable development of RTL and the reasonable exploitation of agricultural water resources at basin and irrigation-unit scales respectively,and further analyzed its eco-hydrological effects. At basin scale,the dynamic multi-level temple structure of management in SIS enhances stability and adaptability of RTL. At irrigation-unit scale,the rules of tek-tek water distribution and awig-awig management in each subak organization increase water use efficiency and alleviate community conflicts. Due to the irrigation facilities and spatio-temporal management activities,SIS has ecohydrological effects,namely increasing hydrological connectivity,controlling pests and improving ecosystem services. The existing researches on SIS are mainly based on the qualitative and static research of social sciences such as sociology,anthropology,and history,with few on the natural sciences such as ecology and hydrology. In future,we should strengthen the quantitative and dynamic research of natural sciences and multi-discipline,which would provide inspiration for the protection and management of other terraces systems globally.
Irrigation system could regulate eco-hydrological pattern and process of agricultural landscape to maintain its sustainability through management of water resources. In Bali of Indonesia,a traditional Indonesian Subak Irrigation System( SIS) is the wisdom of local people to effectively regulate eco-hydrological pattern and process of terraced landscapes,which is the key mechanism underlying the sustainability of Rice Terraces Landscapes( RTL). We used the published literatures on SIS as a data source to review its mechanisms in ensuring the sustainable development of RTL and the reasonable exploitation of agricultural water resources at basin and irrigation-unit scales respectively,and further analyzed its eco-hydrological effects. At basin scale,the dynamic multi-level temple structure of management in SIS enhances stability and adaptability of RTL. At irrigation-unit scale,the rules of tek-tek water distribution and awig-awig management in each subak organization increase water use efficiency and alleviate community conflicts. Due to the irrigation facilities and spatio-temporal management activities,SIS has ecohydrological effects,namely increasing hydrological connectivity,controlling pests and improving ecosystem services. The existing researches on SIS are mainly based on the qualitative and static research of social sciences such as sociology,anthropology,and history,with few on the natural sciences such as ecology and hydrology. In future,we should strengthen the quantitative and dynamic research of natural sciences and multi-discipline,which would provide inspiration for the protection and management of other terraces systems globally.
引文
黄奕龙,傅伯杰,陈利顶.2003.生态水文过程研究进展.生态学报,23(3):580-587.
李胜男,王根绪,邓伟.2008.湿地景观格局与水文过程研究进展.生态学杂志,27(6):1012-1020.
王梅,角媛梅,刘志林,等.2017.哈尼梯田灌溉水源的分水木刻管理体系研究---以元阳县垭口大沟为例.中国农村水利水电,(3):198-203.
Asmiwyati IGAA,Mahendra MS,Arifin NHS,et al.2015.Recognizing indigenous knowledge on agricultural landscape in Bali for micro climate and environment control.Procedia Environmental Sciences,28:623-629.
Bhattacharya S.2013.Traditional water harvesting structures and sustainable water management in India:A socio-hydrological review.International Letters of Natural Sciences,37:30-38.
Cole S,Browne M.2015.Tourism and water inequity in Bali:Asocial-ecological systems analysis.Human Ecology,43:439-450.
Dib JB,Alamsyah Z,Qaim M.2018.Land-use change and income inequality in rural Indonesia.Forest Policy&Economics,94:55-66.
Falvo DJ.2000.On modeling Balinese water temple networks as complex adaptive systems.Human Ecology,28:641-649.
Farrington J.1997.Pathways towards a sustainable mountain agriculture for the 21st century:The Hindu Kush-Himalayan experience.Mountain Research&Development,20:201-202.
Fox KM.2012.Resilience in Action:Adaptive Governance for Subaks,Rice Terraces,and Water Temples in Bali,Indonesia(Doctoral dissertation).USA:The University of Arizona.
Fu BJ,Zhao WW,Chen LD,et al.2005.Eco-hydrological effects of landscape pattern change.Landscape and Ecological Engineering,1:25-32.
Geertz C.1972.The wet and the dry:Traditional irrigation in Bali and Morocco.Human Ecology,1:23-39.
Hauser-Schublin B.2005.Temple and king:Resource management,rituals and redistribution in early Bali.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute,11:747-771.
Hauser-Schublin B.2011.Land donations and the gift of water.On temple landlordism and irrigation agriculture in precolonial Bali.Human Ecology,39:43-53.
Hermoso V,Morán-Ordóez A,Brotons L.2018.Assessing the role of Natura 2000 at maintaining dynamic landscapes in Europe over the last two decades:Implications for conservation.Landscape Ecology,33:1447-1460.
Jayanti IAGK,Osawa T,Adnyana IWS,et al.2012.Multitemporal MODIS data to mapping rice field distribution in Bali Province of Indonesia based on the temporal dynamic characteristics of the rice plant.Earth Science Research,1:64-74.
Jha N,Schoenfelder JW,Jha N,et al.2011.Special issue:Studies of the subak:New directions,new challenges.Human Ecology,39:3-10.
Lansing JS,Cheong SA,Chew LY,et al.2014.Regime shifts in Balinese subaks.Current Anthropology,55:232-239.
Lansing JS,Cox MP,Downey SS,et al.2009.A robust budding model of Balinese water temple networks.World Archaeology,41:112-133.
Lansing JS,Kremer JN,Gerhart V,et al.2001.Volcanic fertilization of Balinese rice paddies.Ecological Economics,38:383-390.
Lansing JS,Kremer JN.1993.Emergent properties of Balinese water temple networks:Coadaptation on a rugged fitness landscape.American Anthropologist,95:97-114.
Lansing JS,Thurner S,Chung NN,et al.2017.Adaptive selforganization of Bali’s ancient rice terraces.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,114:6504-6509.
Lansing JS.1987.Balinese"Water Temples"and the management of irrigation.American Anthropologist,89:326-341.
Lansing JS.2012.The functional role of Balinese water temples:A response to critics.Human Ecology,40:453-467.
Lanya I,Subadiyasa NN,Sardiana K,et al.2015.Numerical classification,subak zoning and land transfer function rice field in the province of Bali based on remote sensing and GIS.Procedia Environmental Sciences,24:47-55.
Lorenzen RP.2011.Perseverance in the Face of Change-resilience Assessment of Balinese Irrigated Rice Cultivation(Doctoral thesis).Australia:Australian National University.
Macrae GS,Arthawiguna IWA.2011.Sustainable agricultural development in Bali:Is the subak an obstacle,an agent or subject?Human Ecology,39:11-20.
McTaggart WD.1988.Hydrologic management in Bali.Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography,9:96-111.
Mungsunti A,Parton KA.2016.Estimating the economic and environmental benefits of a traditional communal water irrigation system:The case of muang fai in Northern Thailand.Agricultural Water Management,179:366-377.
Norken IN,Suputra IK,Arsana IGNK.2015.Water resources management of subak irrigation system in Bali.Applied Mechanics&Materials,776:139-144.
Norken IN,Suputra IK,Arsana IGNK.2016.Challenges to the conservation of subak system as world cultural heritage in Bali.Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology B,6:215-225.
Nuarsa IW,Nishio F,Hongo C,et al.2012.Using variance analysis of multitemporal MODIS images for rice field mapping in Bali Province,Indonesia.International Journal of Remote Sensing,33:5402-5417.
Oki T,Kanae S.2006.Global hydrological cycles and world water resources.Science,313:1068-1072.
Ortega-Reig M,Palau-Salvador G,Sempere MJCI,et al.2014.The integrated use of surface,ground and recycled waste water in adapting to drought in the traditional irrigation system of Valencia.Agricultural Water Management,133:55-64.
Ostrom E.1991.Crafting Institutions for Self-governing Irrigation Systems.USA:Institute for Contemporary Studies Press.
Ounvichit T.2011.Equal water sharing in scarcity conditions:The case of the Chaisombat Muang Fai Irrigation System in Thailand.Paddy&Water Environment,9:325-332.
Pedersen L,Dharmiasih W.2015.The enchantment of agriculture:State decentering and irrigated rice production in Bali.Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology,16:141-156.
Roche FC.1994.The technical and price efficiency of fertiliser use in irrigated rice production.Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,30:59-83.
Roth D,Sedana G.2015.Reframing Tri Hita Karana:From‘Balinese Culture’to politics.Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology,16:157-175.
Roth D.2014.Environmental sustainability and legal plurality in irrigation:The Balinese subak.Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability,11:1-9.
Sandiasa G,Supriyono B,Mardiyono S.2015.The implementation study of irrigation system policy based on local wisdom at Buleleng,Bali,Indonesia.International Journal of Applied Sociology,5:139-143.
Schulte NH.2011.Dams and dynasty,and the colonial transformation of Balinese irrigation management.Human Ecology,39:21-27.
Shiotsu F,Sakagami N,Asagi N,et al.2015.Initiation and dissemination of organic rice cultivation in Bali,Indonesia.Sustainability,7:5171-5181.
Spiertz H.1991.The transformation of traditional law:A tale of people participation in irrigation management on Bali.Landscape and Urban Planning,20:189-196.
Stuart-fox DJ.1987.Pura Besakih:A study of Balinese religion and society(Doctoral dissertation).Australia:Australian National University.
Sutawan N.1989.Farmer-managed irrigation systems and the impact of government assistance:A note from Bali,Indonesia.IWMI Books Reports,5:97-99.
Takama T,Setyani P,Aldrian DE.2014.Climate change vulnerability to rice paddy production in Bali,Indonesia.Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation:1-23.
Tanaka Y,Sato Y.2005.Farmers managed irrigation districts in Japan:Assessing how fairness may contribute to sustainability.Agricultural Water Management,77:196-209.
Termorshuizen JW,Opdam P,Musacchio L.2009.Landscape services as a bridge between landscape ecology and sustainable development.Landscape Ecology,24:1037-1052.
Tilman D,Cassman KG,Matson PA,et al.2002.Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices.Nature,418:671-677.
UNESCO.2012.Cultural landscape of Bali Province:The subak system as a manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy[EB/OL].[2018-03-07].http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194
Vincent L.1994.Lost chances and new futures:Interventions and institutions in small-scale irrigation.Land Use Policy,11:309-322.
Wang C,Fu BJ,Zhang L,et al.2018.Soil moisture-plant interactions:An ecohydrological review.Journal of Soils and Sediments.DOI:10.1007/s11368-018-2167-0.
Wu J.2013.Landscape sustainability science:Ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes.Landscape Ecology,28:999-1023.
Yabes R,Goldstein BE.2015.Collaborative resilience to episodic shocks and surprises:A very long-term case study of zanjera irrigation in the Philippines 1979-2010.Social Sciences,4:469-498.
Yeketi MI.2017.Role of Reservoir Operation in Sustainable Water Supply to Subak Irrigation Schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin(Doctoral dissertation).Netherlands:Wageningen University.
Yekti MI,Nyoman BSI.2017.Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation schemes as a culture heritage in Bali.Agric Eng Int:CIGRJournal,19:33-44.
李胜男,王根绪,邓伟.2008.湿地景观格局与水文过程研究进展.生态学杂志,27(6):1012-1020.
王梅,角媛梅,刘志林,等.2017.哈尼梯田灌溉水源的分水木刻管理体系研究---以元阳县垭口大沟为例.中国农村水利水电,(3):198-203.
Asmiwyati IGAA,Mahendra MS,Arifin NHS,et al.2015.Recognizing indigenous knowledge on agricultural landscape in Bali for micro climate and environment control.Procedia Environmental Sciences,28:623-629.
Bhattacharya S.2013.Traditional water harvesting structures and sustainable water management in India:A socio-hydrological review.International Letters of Natural Sciences,37:30-38.
Cole S,Browne M.2015.Tourism and water inequity in Bali:Asocial-ecological systems analysis.Human Ecology,43:439-450.
Dib JB,Alamsyah Z,Qaim M.2018.Land-use change and income inequality in rural Indonesia.Forest Policy&Economics,94:55-66.
Falvo DJ.2000.On modeling Balinese water temple networks as complex adaptive systems.Human Ecology,28:641-649.
Farrington J.1997.Pathways towards a sustainable mountain agriculture for the 21st century:The Hindu Kush-Himalayan experience.Mountain Research&Development,20:201-202.
Fox KM.2012.Resilience in Action:Adaptive Governance for Subaks,Rice Terraces,and Water Temples in Bali,Indonesia(Doctoral dissertation).USA:The University of Arizona.
Fu BJ,Zhao WW,Chen LD,et al.2005.Eco-hydrological effects of landscape pattern change.Landscape and Ecological Engineering,1:25-32.
Geertz C.1972.The wet and the dry:Traditional irrigation in Bali and Morocco.Human Ecology,1:23-39.
Hauser-Schublin B.2005.Temple and king:Resource management,rituals and redistribution in early Bali.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute,11:747-771.
Hauser-Schublin B.2011.Land donations and the gift of water.On temple landlordism and irrigation agriculture in precolonial Bali.Human Ecology,39:43-53.
Hermoso V,Morán-Ordóez A,Brotons L.2018.Assessing the role of Natura 2000 at maintaining dynamic landscapes in Europe over the last two decades:Implications for conservation.Landscape Ecology,33:1447-1460.
Jayanti IAGK,Osawa T,Adnyana IWS,et al.2012.Multitemporal MODIS data to mapping rice field distribution in Bali Province of Indonesia based on the temporal dynamic characteristics of the rice plant.Earth Science Research,1:64-74.
Jha N,Schoenfelder JW,Jha N,et al.2011.Special issue:Studies of the subak:New directions,new challenges.Human Ecology,39:3-10.
Lansing JS,Cheong SA,Chew LY,et al.2014.Regime shifts in Balinese subaks.Current Anthropology,55:232-239.
Lansing JS,Cox MP,Downey SS,et al.2009.A robust budding model of Balinese water temple networks.World Archaeology,41:112-133.
Lansing JS,Kremer JN,Gerhart V,et al.2001.Volcanic fertilization of Balinese rice paddies.Ecological Economics,38:383-390.
Lansing JS,Kremer JN.1993.Emergent properties of Balinese water temple networks:Coadaptation on a rugged fitness landscape.American Anthropologist,95:97-114.
Lansing JS,Thurner S,Chung NN,et al.2017.Adaptive selforganization of Bali’s ancient rice terraces.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,114:6504-6509.
Lansing JS.1987.Balinese"Water Temples"and the management of irrigation.American Anthropologist,89:326-341.
Lansing JS.2012.The functional role of Balinese water temples:A response to critics.Human Ecology,40:453-467.
Lanya I,Subadiyasa NN,Sardiana K,et al.2015.Numerical classification,subak zoning and land transfer function rice field in the province of Bali based on remote sensing and GIS.Procedia Environmental Sciences,24:47-55.
Lorenzen RP.2011.Perseverance in the Face of Change-resilience Assessment of Balinese Irrigated Rice Cultivation(Doctoral thesis).Australia:Australian National University.
Macrae GS,Arthawiguna IWA.2011.Sustainable agricultural development in Bali:Is the subak an obstacle,an agent or subject?Human Ecology,39:11-20.
McTaggart WD.1988.Hydrologic management in Bali.Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography,9:96-111.
Mungsunti A,Parton KA.2016.Estimating the economic and environmental benefits of a traditional communal water irrigation system:The case of muang fai in Northern Thailand.Agricultural Water Management,179:366-377.
Norken IN,Suputra IK,Arsana IGNK.2015.Water resources management of subak irrigation system in Bali.Applied Mechanics&Materials,776:139-144.
Norken IN,Suputra IK,Arsana IGNK.2016.Challenges to the conservation of subak system as world cultural heritage in Bali.Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology B,6:215-225.
Nuarsa IW,Nishio F,Hongo C,et al.2012.Using variance analysis of multitemporal MODIS images for rice field mapping in Bali Province,Indonesia.International Journal of Remote Sensing,33:5402-5417.
Oki T,Kanae S.2006.Global hydrological cycles and world water resources.Science,313:1068-1072.
Ortega-Reig M,Palau-Salvador G,Sempere MJCI,et al.2014.The integrated use of surface,ground and recycled waste water in adapting to drought in the traditional irrigation system of Valencia.Agricultural Water Management,133:55-64.
Ostrom E.1991.Crafting Institutions for Self-governing Irrigation Systems.USA:Institute for Contemporary Studies Press.
Ounvichit T.2011.Equal water sharing in scarcity conditions:The case of the Chaisombat Muang Fai Irrigation System in Thailand.Paddy&Water Environment,9:325-332.
Pedersen L,Dharmiasih W.2015.The enchantment of agriculture:State decentering and irrigated rice production in Bali.Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology,16:141-156.
Roche FC.1994.The technical and price efficiency of fertiliser use in irrigated rice production.Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,30:59-83.
Roth D,Sedana G.2015.Reframing Tri Hita Karana:From‘Balinese Culture’to politics.Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology,16:157-175.
Roth D.2014.Environmental sustainability and legal plurality in irrigation:The Balinese subak.Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability,11:1-9.
Sandiasa G,Supriyono B,Mardiyono S.2015.The implementation study of irrigation system policy based on local wisdom at Buleleng,Bali,Indonesia.International Journal of Applied Sociology,5:139-143.
Schulte NH.2011.Dams and dynasty,and the colonial transformation of Balinese irrigation management.Human Ecology,39:21-27.
Shiotsu F,Sakagami N,Asagi N,et al.2015.Initiation and dissemination of organic rice cultivation in Bali,Indonesia.Sustainability,7:5171-5181.
Spiertz H.1991.The transformation of traditional law:A tale of people participation in irrigation management on Bali.Landscape and Urban Planning,20:189-196.
Stuart-fox DJ.1987.Pura Besakih:A study of Balinese religion and society(Doctoral dissertation).Australia:Australian National University.
Sutawan N.1989.Farmer-managed irrigation systems and the impact of government assistance:A note from Bali,Indonesia.IWMI Books Reports,5:97-99.
Takama T,Setyani P,Aldrian DE.2014.Climate change vulnerability to rice paddy production in Bali,Indonesia.Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation:1-23.
Tanaka Y,Sato Y.2005.Farmers managed irrigation districts in Japan:Assessing how fairness may contribute to sustainability.Agricultural Water Management,77:196-209.
Termorshuizen JW,Opdam P,Musacchio L.2009.Landscape services as a bridge between landscape ecology and sustainable development.Landscape Ecology,24:1037-1052.
Tilman D,Cassman KG,Matson PA,et al.2002.Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices.Nature,418:671-677.
UNESCO.2012.Cultural landscape of Bali Province:The subak system as a manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy[EB/OL].[2018-03-07].http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194
Vincent L.1994.Lost chances and new futures:Interventions and institutions in small-scale irrigation.Land Use Policy,11:309-322.
Wang C,Fu BJ,Zhang L,et al.2018.Soil moisture-plant interactions:An ecohydrological review.Journal of Soils and Sediments.DOI:10.1007/s11368-018-2167-0.
Wu J.2013.Landscape sustainability science:Ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes.Landscape Ecology,28:999-1023.
Yabes R,Goldstein BE.2015.Collaborative resilience to episodic shocks and surprises:A very long-term case study of zanjera irrigation in the Philippines 1979-2010.Social Sciences,4:469-498.
Yeketi MI.2017.Role of Reservoir Operation in Sustainable Water Supply to Subak Irrigation Schemes in Yeh Ho River Basin(Doctoral dissertation).Netherlands:Wageningen University.
Yekti MI,Nyoman BSI.2017.Discharge analysis for a system approach to river basin development with Subak irrigation schemes as a culture heritage in Bali.Agric Eng Int:CIGRJournal,19:33-44.