制度演化视角下的会计稳健性问题研究
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摘要
不确定性是会计稳健性的前提,而天下最为确定的就是存在不确定性。FASB以西方财务会计理论集大成者和会计准则建设者合二为一的身份,在1983年颁布的第2号财务会计概念框架中明确提出对会计稳健性的认可,指出财务会计和报告领域里,像对计量上可能的误差,宁愿少计资产和收益而不愿多记的会计稳健性(意为审慎性)这样的惯例是有地位的,因为企业和经济活动在到处都有不肯定因素的环境中进行,但是近30年来,以投资者利益导向为首要指向的FASB一直认为,会计稳健性虽然具有根深蒂固的历史地位,但是编制财务报表的会计稳健性,应不含有蓄意地、一贯地少计净资产和净利之意,否则有违中立性。2008年,FASB在其和IASB颁布的联合概念框架的征求意见稿中最终决定将会计稳健性(包括会计审慎性)彻底清除,但是争议并未因此而停止,因为会计稳健性悠久的历史说明,其并非因为正式制度的认可而出现,也就不会因为正式制度的否定而消失。
     当前有关会计稳健性话题是针对以资本市场为主要服务对象的财务会计而言,主要的研究成果来自美国这样一个尽管具有难以撼动的经济地位但是会计历史却极为短暂的国家。从演化进程来看,美国的会计源自英国,而英国会计又可依次向前溯至荷兰、意大利会计,而这仅仅涉及复式会计的发展脉络,在复式簿记之前还有中世纪欧洲会计、四大文明古国会计、甚至会计的源头即原始计量记录。历史中的会计稳健性是经过上述这样一个发展脉络产生并演化至今,当前作为主流的英美会计理论所论及的会计稳健性仅仅是一个复杂制度现象的冰山一角。
     对于中国而言,会计稳健性一词完全是从西方移植而来的概念,了解会计稳健性究竟为何产生,又是如何演化至当前的状态极为迫切。中国自20世纪80年代开始建立会计制度以来,被动地经历了会计稳健性从无到有(1983-1997年)、从弱到强(1998-2005)、从全面到适度(2006-至今)三个阶段。每一次的调整都是因为旧制度产生的负面影响,这种被动调整的代价极为巨大,中国不同于美国,后者是普通法系国家,其制度源自市场中的习俗与惯例,因此会计稳健性的制度化实质上是市场运行中的内部规则自发外化的结果,其制度调整所产生的后果完全由系统内部消化。但是中国不同,作为一种制定法国家,每一次制度的制定或者调整都会发生巨大的社会成本。因此我国在移植会计稳健性制度时需要采取三思而后行的态度。但是事实上并非如此,会计稳健性原则最初的运用完全是我国会计改革与国际接轨的显著表现,制度建设者并未从历史的视角关注会计稳健性的来龙去脉。被移植的制度以是否适用作为接受标准,上述三个发展阶段就是我国制度建设被动适应结果。
     在中国,会计稳健性制度频频变动调整之际,FASB和IASB又作出其会计信息质量框架中彻底清除会计稳健性的决策,在会计准则国际化趋同的大环境下,我国会计制度建设者又一次面临是否跟从的挑战。会计稳健性究竟是什么?中西方迄今并无统一认识。在美国会计理论独步天下的今天,其观点对于各国会计界的影响颇深。在FASB的“目标-准则-实务”理论逻辑指引下的会计稳健性理论很难深入,因为目标是纯主观的产物,缺乏一个客观见之主观的逻辑起点来统领理论的发展,必然会产生目标与实务之间的分歧。会计稳健性在实务中的普遍性和多样性及其对准则制定目的的偏离,促使理论研究的不足亟待解决。多样性是演化的动力,故而从制度演化视角对会计稳健性理论研究成为一个重要而又迫切的研究课题。
     本文基于制度演化视角对会计稳健性问题进行研究,试图重点解决三个基本问题,一是为什么需要从制度演化视角进行会计稳健性问题的研究,二是如何进行演化分析,三是本研究成果如何弥补当前会计稳健性理论的不足。
     在回答这三个问题之前,首先需要借助于会计与经济学的理论基础。从会计研究文献来看,自现代会计理论产生伊始,演化思想就出现端倪,主要表现在早期会计研究者均试图从历史中寻找会计稳健性惯例的不同原因,采用“存在的就是适合的”标准完成准则构建,这种基于因果追溯的演化研究在新古典均衡范式占据会计研究阵地后就不复存在,将根本上是异质的、不可逆的会计稳健性惯例纳入统一的主观目的导向下的会计准则范畴,混乱的结果不言而喻。
     不同于制度均衡观所持的经验实在论的本体论和个体主义的认识论,制度演化观坚持批判实在论的本体论和个体群主义,假设制度主体具有认知理性、强调制度的累积因果和回溯法的运用。基于制度演化观,本文将会计稳健性的历史沿革置于“本能-行为-习惯-习俗-惯例-制度”的制度演化路径之中,向上因果探讨得出会计稳健性的终极原因是“至善”,向下因果探讨得出会计稳健性的多样性源自异质的能动主体与其所在社会结构间互动。
     当前会计准则制定者认为会计稳健性惯例是一种自动的、重复的、缄默的,“时间无涉”的“实在”,在这种均衡观指导下构建的会计准则无法完成链接主观会计目标和客观会计实务的任务。要解决这一问题就需要研究者将视角从制度均衡走向制度演化:首先,将研究关注点从均衡观下的“会计秩序”转向演化观下的“因果机制”,通过向上溯因分析制度形成的终极原因,向下溯因分析制度如何制约个体行为,实现因果累积链条在逻辑上的完整性。其次,重构会计稳健性理念,在当前“目标-准则-实务”的理论逻辑顺序中添加一个客观见之主观的“本质”起点,使主观的“目标”更具有客观的立论基础,从而不再游离于客观需要之外。第三,本文指出会计的发展必须适应社会需要,因此权变地适应社会需要是会计稳健性的发展方向。
Uncertainty is the premise of accounting conservatism, while "The world's most definitive is undeterministic ". As the western financial accounting theory master and accounting principles builder, FASB clearly put forward recognition of accounting conservatism in its financial accounting conceptual framework (1983No.2) that, in the field of financial accounting and reporting, for the possible metering error, the convention is calculator less assets and earnings rather than calculator more of accounting conservatism (that is prudential), because of business and economic activities have uncertain factors everywhere", but nearly30years, FASB which guided by investor's interests to the first point always think that, Accounting conservatism has a deep-rooted history status, but "Accounting conservatism of preparation of financial statements, should not contain the meaning of calculator less net assets and net profit deliberately and consistently ", otherwise it is a breach of "neutrality". In2008, FASB and IASB issued conceptual framework thoroughly remove accounting conservatism (including accounting prudential) from the frame, but the controversy haven't stopped till now, because the long history of accounting conservatism illustrate that, it appears not because of approval of formal institution, and do not disappear because of negation of formal institution.
     Currently, the relevant accounting conservatism topic is in view of financial accounting which takes the capital market as the main service object, the main research comes from American, which have an economic status difficult to shake as well as a brief accounting history. From the view of evolutionary process, the accounting of American originate from British, and the British's originate from Holland and Italy successively, it involves only the development process of double—entry accounting yet, before double—entry bookkeeping, there are medieval European accounting, the four great ancient civilizations accounting, even the source of accounting, i.e. the original measurement record. Going through such kind of development process, accounting conservatism in the history come into being and evaluate till now, currently, the accounting conservatism discussed by mainstream British and American theory is the tip of the iceberg of a phenomenon of complex institution.
     For China, the concept of "accounting conservatism" is fully transplant from Western, it is eager to know how the accounting conservatism came into being and evolved to the current status. Since the beginning of establishing accounting institution in1980s, accounting conservatism passively experience three stages, that is from scratch (1983-1997), from weak to strong (1998-2005), and from comprehensive to moderate (2006-present). Every adjustment is because of the negative influence of the old institution,
     the cost of such passive adjustment is very great. China is different from the United States, the latter is a country with common law system, its institution originate from the customs and practices in the market, so, institutionalized accounting conservatism in essence is the result of spontaneous externalization of internal rules of market operation, the consequence of institution adjustment is digested by system of internal. But China is different, as a statute law country, the social cost of every formulation and adjustment of the institution are huge. Therefore, China needs to take prudent attitude in the transplantation of accounting conservatism institution. But the fact is not the case, the initial application of accounting conservatism principle is the significant performance of Chinese accounting reform in line with international standard, institution builders do not pay attention to the cause and effect of accounting conservatism from a historical perspective. The applicability of the transplanted institution is conducted as acceptance criteria, The above three stage are passive adaption result of Chinese institutional building.
     When accounting conservatism frequently change in China, FASB and IASB also make a decision to completely remove the accounting conservatism from accounting information quality framework. Chinese institution builders face the challenge of whether to follow under the circumstance of international convergence of accounting standard. What is the accounting conservatism? There is no unified understanding between Chinese and western so far. Since the accounting theory in American is unparalleled in the world, its views deeply influence other countries in accounting industries. The further development of accounting conservatism theory is difficult by the guidance of the FASB's logic of " Objective—standard—practice",, because the objective is a product of purely subjective, which lack of a logical start point of "subjective effects of objective " to lead the development of the theory, so it must cause the difference of objective and practice. The universality, diversity of accounting conservatism in practice and its deviation of standard setting purpose, lead the limitations of the theoretical study to be solved. Diversity is the motivation of evolution, so from the view of institution evolution, the accounting conservatism theory research has become an important and urgent research subject.
     In this paper, accounting conservatism problems are studied based on the evolution of institution perspective, focusing on solving three basic problems, One is why study accounting conservatism problems from the view of evolution of institution, another is how to make an evolution analyze, the third is how the research findings make up the deficiency of accounting conservatism theory.
     Before answering these three questions, we need to use the theoretical basis of accounting and economics in advance. See from accounting research literature, evolution thoughts have been formed since beginning of the modern accounting theory, the main manifestations are early accounting researchers tried to find reasons for difference of accounting conservatism convention from the history, using the criterion of "existence always makes reasonable" to construct standard, such kind of research using causal tracing method has pass out of existence since the using of new classical equilibrium paradigm, heterogeneity and irreversible accounting conservatism convention incorporated into the accounting standard category under the guidance of subjective purpose, it obviously leads to confusion.
     Differ form the ontology of empirical realism and episternology of individualism held by institutional view of equilibrium, the theory of evolution of institution insist on criticizing ontology of realism and individual group of socialism, assume the main body of the institution has the rational cognition, emphasizes the cumulative causation of the institution and the use of backtracking method, this paper put the historical evolution of accounting conservatism in such an evolution path that is "Instinct—behavior—custom—habits—convention—institution", Upward causal study concludes that the ultimate cause of accounting conservatism is "perfectionism", downward causal study concludes that the diversity of accounting conservatism stems from the interaction between heterogeneous active subject and social structure it lies.
     Accounting standard setters in recent days consider that the accounting conservatism is "reality" of automatic, repetition, silent, and "no part time". Such accounting standard constructed under the guidance of balanced view, and do not completely conjunct with subjective accounting goal and objective accounting practices. To resolve this problem, the researchers need to change the angle of view from institution equilibrium to evolution of institution. First of all, change the attention of theoretical research from the "accounting order" in balancing view to the "causal mechanism" in evolution view. Through abducts forward to analyze the ultimate formative reason of institution, and backward to analyze how institution restrict individual behavior, Complete implementation of cumulative causation chain logically, Then, this paper reconstructs the accounting conservatism concept, adds a "nature" start point which objective effects of subjective in the theoretical logical sequence of "objective—standard—practice", so that the subjective goal has the objective theoretical basis, and do not dissociate with objective requirement. In the third, this paper points out that the development of accounting must adapt to the needs of the society, so contingency to meet the needs of society is the development direction of accounting conservatism.
引文
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