摘要
本研究在社会认知和图式一元化理论框架下探讨形式图式与内容图式对英语为外语的中国英语学习者文本理解的影响,特别是它们的交互影响,以期构建一个可供选择的阅读模式——社会认知-图式化阅读方法(SSRA)。图式阅读理论已取得卓有成效的发展和研究成果,但其具体操作和应用步骤尚欠清晰,结论也不尽一致,尤其缺乏对中国英语学习者的社会认知-图式化阅读模式之实证性研究。本研究旨在整合社会认知和图式理论来检验图式对文本理解的影响作用以提高中国英语读者的阅读质量,进而揭示:在即时和延时条件下,图式如何影响中国中高语言水平读者的文本理解及其内容回忆;通过对比阅读者的回忆结果,来检验不同文本结构和文化内容在长时记忆中对文本内容保持力的不同作用。同时还须考察:1、图式是如何运作的?2、图式理论和阅读理解的关系如何?3、图式如何影响英语为外语学习者的阅读理解?4、在社会认知和跨文化环境下,中国英语学习者怎样利用图式去阅读英语文本?5、教师如何帮助学生意识到并激活他们已有的图式来提高他们对书面语篇的理解质量?
据此,作者在已有图式阅读研究的基础上,通过三个实验分别验证图式对中国英语阅读者阅读理解的影响作用,检测学习者在文本加工时激活和利用图式的有效性,并采用跨文化对比分析和整合社会认知-图式化文本理解的方法来构建新的文本加工途径(SSRA)。具体来说,第一个实验力图鉴别文本图式对阅读者语篇理解的整体作用及其对文本内容回忆的影响。第二个实验通过对被试回忆备忘录(protocol)等的统计分析来检查内容图式对阅读理解的影响。第三个实验在社会认知的图式一体化框架内调查两种图式的交互影响,证实研究实施的可行性,并提供教学论方面的指导。
为此,60名中国本科大学生参加了实验。作者采用多因素实验设计的研究方法围绕图式阅读理论对实验数据作了定性和定量两种统计分析,获得了以下发现:1、本研究从根本上支持这样的事实:实验组受试在接受较长时间的图式激活和利用训练后,阅读理解质量和语篇回忆的信息量明显高于未接受训练的控制组受试;形式图式的激活对被试的阅读理解产生不同程度的影响,其中宏观层次的作用最为突出。2、实验组受试的实验阅读理解成绩和其其它成绩之间存在显著相关。3、在实验组得到优先于控制组对已有图式有意识激活和使用的阅读培训之后,实验组和控制组受试的阅读理解之间存在显著差异,即实验组成绩优于控制组。4、对英语为外语的中高语言水平被试而言,对句法较易、较难文本的回忆和问题回答质量也有显著差异。而且,只要被试具备并激活与文章内容相关的图式,即便语言有一定难度,理解能力也会大大提高。5、英语为外语的中国学习者的阅读活动发生在有别于英语为本族语的社会认知和文化语境之中,这种研究对全面解释内潜于相关阅读活动之中的世界知识图式有一定贡献。简而言之,本论文较详细地描述了作者整合社会认知和图式阅读理论之研究成果,使其在拓宽和丰富图式阅读理论上跨出了重要一步。它不仅在图式阅读理论上有所突破,还为提高阅读教学质量提供了具体的教学模式。同时,对二语习得,尤其是中国英语教、学提供了重要启示。
然而,鉴于图式化文本理解过程的高度复杂性和不可预见性,本研究难免存在概念和方法等方面的不足,研究设计和数据分析等也局限于作者所能的独创性和研究条件。因此,作者提出了在此领域进行深入研究的建议,以便通过整合各项未来研究成果取得关于外语文本加工过程更完整、一致,更具普通意义的结论。本文的发现和启示,还需大量研究进一步实践验证。
This study is to investigate, within a unified schema-theoretical framework of sociocognition, the effects of content and formal schemata on Chinese EFL learners’text comprehension, especially the interactive effects of these two kinds of schemata, in order to develop an alternative reading approach—SSRA (sociocognitive schematic reading approach). A sizable amount of studies has been done in schema reading theory, but my study is motivated by the unclear operational applications and the inconsistent results of those researchers and by the lack of empirical research on sociocognitive schematic influences on Chinese EFL readers. To achieve knowledge in this aspect, this study strives to see how schemata affect the comprehension and recall of Chinese EFL readers at the same language proficiency of the high-intermediate level in different recall conditions, and to see whether different structural levels and different cultural content idea units have different effects on the retention of the ideas of the text in the long-term memory by comparing the different results under the two recall conditions. And to integrate the interactive effects of content and formal schemata based on sociocognitive and schematic respects, the study is conducted to see how schemata operate, to examine the relationship between reading comprehension and schema theory, to look at the influence that schemata have on the reading comprehension of students as EFL learners, specifically those English majors from a China’s university, to see how Chinese EFL learners make use of schemata when they read in English in sociocognitive and crosscultural context, and to see how we can help the students to activate the schemata stored in their mind to foster their comprehension with written discourse.
For the aforementioned objectives, the study here conducts a three-experiment program to test the three types of effects of schemata on Chinese EFL readers based on the existing literature in the study of reading comprehension and schema theory, to assess the effectiveness of training students in activating and utilizing a schema as a text processing aid, and finally to set up a new text-processing approach—SSRA by investigating issues of the integrated socio-cognitive schematic effects on text comprehension cross culture. Specifically, the first experiment endeavors to identify the structure-specific effects on Chinese learners of English in text processing in general and then to explore how formal schemata influence the readers’recall of text in particular. The second one examines the effects resulting from content-oriented schemata, which can be verified via subjects’recall protocols. And the third one tries to investigate, within a unified socio-cognitive schematic framework, the interaction-focused effects both of content and formal schemata on Chinese EFL learners’reading comprehension in general, and testify the feasibility of extending and implementing the current results to providing pedagogical guidance for Chinese students learning to read English texts in particular.
Sixty Chinese EFL undergraduate students participated in the study. A multi-factorial design was adopted. Subjects’data was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The findings obtained are: (1) The research primarily supports the fact that subjects who received a fairly lengthy training period of schema activation and utilisation outperformed those who did not receive that training both in reading comprehension and information recalled, and the fact that text organization appears to more facilitatively affect the recall of major ideas than that of minor details. (2) The significant correlations between the experimental performances and their other performances in EC (experimental class) exist. (3) The significant differences existing between EC and CC (control class) show the advantages of explicit training of subjects to be aware of and activate their preexisting content and formal schemata during their EFL reading. (4) Significant differences on both recall and question-answering obviously exist between a syntactically easier text and a syntactically more difficult text for subjects of high-intermediate-level proficiency in English as a foreign language. (5) Chinese EFL reading took place and could be practiced in different social and cultural contexts, and a study of these contexts can contribute to understanding the world schemata underlying the reading activities concerned. In short, this dissertation depicts my research exploration in incorporating schematic reading study in sociocognitive and crosscultural dimensions, which is an important step in expanding and enriching schema theory in the realm of EFL reading comprehension. The current research has important pedagogical implications for SLA, especially for English language teaching and learning in China.
Due to the highly complicated and unpredictable nature of schematic text comprehension, this investigation still suffers from some limitations conceptually, methodologically and in other aspects. The possible designs of research in SL/FL are only limited by the ingenuity of the researcher and the conditions under which the research is being conducted. Therefore, recommendations to conduct further studies are put forward in order to facilitate a more consistent, coherent picture of EFL text comprehension and to elicit more generalizable conclusions from amalgamation of future results.
引文
Abbott, M. L. 2006. ESL reading strategies: Differences in Arabic and Mandarin speaker test performance. Language Learning 56/4: 633-670.
Abbott, M. L. 2007. A confirmatory approach to differential item functioning on an ESL reading assessment. Language Testing 24/1: 7-36.
Abelen, E., Redeker, G. & Thompson, S. A. 1993. The rhetorical structure of US American and Dutch fund-raising letters. Text 13(3): 323-350.
Abu-Rabia, S. 2003. Cognitive and social factors affecting Arab students learning English as a third language in Israel. Educational Psychology 23/4: 347-60.
Adair-Hauck, B. & Donato, R. 1994. Foreign language explanations within the zone of proximal development. The Canadian Modern Language Review 50: 532-555.
Adams, R. 2003. L2 output, reformulation and noticing: implications for IL development. Language Teaching Research 7: 347-376.
Adams, M. J. & Collins, A. 1979. A schema-theoretic view of reading. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New Directions in Discourse Processing (pp. 1-22). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Ajideh, P. 2003. Schema theory-based pre-reading tasks: A neglected essential in the ESL reading class. The Reading Matrix 3/1: 1-14
Akamatsu, N. 2003. The effects of first language orthographic features on second language reading in text. Language Learning 53: 207-231.
Alderson, J. C. 1984. Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson & A. U. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a Foreign Language, (pp. 1-27). London: Longman.
Alderson, J. C. 2000. Assessing Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Alderson, J. C. & A. Urquhart. 1988. This test is unfair: I’m not an economist. In P. Carrell, J. Devine & D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. New York: CUP.
Aljaafreh, A. & Lantolf, J. P. 1994. Negative feedback as regulation and second language learning in the zone of proximal development. The Modern Language Journal 78: 465-483.
Alptekin, C. 2006. Cultural familiarity in inferential and literal comprehension in L2 reading. System 34: 494-508.
Anderson, R. C. 1977. The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge (pp. 415-431). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, R. C. 1984. Role of the reader's schema during comprehension, learning, and memory. In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn & R. J. Tierney (Eds.), Learning to Read in American Schools (pp. 243-258). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, T. H. & Armbruster. 1986. Readable textbooks, or selecting a textbook is not like buying a pair of shoes. In Orasanu, J., Reading Comprehension: From Research to Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. R. & Budiu, R. 2004. Interpretation-based processing: A unified theory of semantic sentence comprehension. Cognitive Science 28: 1-44.
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E., Scott, J. & Wilkinson, I. 1985. Becoming a Nation of Readers. Washington, D. C.: National Institute of Education.
Anderson, R. C. & Pearson, P. D. 1984. A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson, R. Bart., M. L. Kamil & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 255-291). New York: Longman.
Anderson, R. C. & Pearson, D. P. 1988. A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. L. Carrell, J. Devine & D. E. Eskey (Eds.) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. 1988.
Anderson, R. C. & Pichert, J. W. 1978. Recall of previously un-recallable information following a shift in perspective. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17: 1-12.
Anderson, R. C., Reynolds, R. E., Schallert, D. L. & Goetz, E. T. 1977. Frameworks for comprehending discourse. American Educational Research Journal 14/4: 367-381.
Anton, M. 1999. The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives on teacher-learner interaction in the second language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 83: 303-318.
Anton, M. & DiCamilla, F. 1998. Socio-cognitive functions of L1 collaborative interaction in the L2 classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review 54: 314-342.
Arbib, M. A., Conklin, E. J. & Hill, J. C. 1987. From Schema Theory to Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Aristotle. 1991. Aristotle on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Trans. George A. Kennedy. New York: Oxford.
Armbruster, B., Anderson, T. & Ostertag, J. 1987. Does text structure/summarization instruction facilitate learning from expository text? Reading Research Quarterly 22/3: 331-347.
Atkinson, D. 2002. Toward a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal 86: 525-545.
Atkinson, D. 2003. Language socialization and dys-socialization in a South Indian college. In R. Bayley & S. R. Schechter (Eds.), Language Socialization in Bilingual and Multilingual Societies (pp. 147-168). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Au, K. H. & Mason, J. M. 1981. Social, organizational factors in learning to read: The balance of rights hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly 17/1: 115-152.
Bachman, L. F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: OUP.
Bachman, L. F. & A. S. Palmer. 1996. Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: OUP.
Baker, L. & Brown, A. L. 1984a. Metacognitive skills and reading. In Pearson P.D. (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research. New York: Longman.
Baker, L. & Brown, A. L. 1984b. Cognitive monitoring in reading. In J. Flood (Eds.), Understanding Reading Comprehension, (pp. 21-44). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Barbara, J. 2002. Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Ltd.
Bargiela-Chiappini, E., Bulow-Moller, A. M., Nickerson, K., Poncini, G. & Zhu, Y. 2003. Research column on intercultural business communication. Business Communication Quarterly 66/3: 73-96.
Bartlett, B. J. 1978. Top-level Structure as an Organizational Strategy for Recall of Classroom Text. PhD. Dissertation, Arizona State University.
Bartlett, F. C. 1932. Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L. & Kucan, L. 1997. Questioning the Author: An Approach for Enhancing Student Engagement with Text. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Beech, J. & Colley, A. 1987. Cognitive Approaches to Reading. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Bengeleil, N. F. & Paribakht, T. S. 2004. L2 reading proficiency and lexical inferencing by university EFL learners. The Canadian Modern Language Review 61/2: 225-249.
Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. 1982. From conversation to composition: The role of instruction in a developmental process. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in Instructional Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 1-64). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Berger, P. & Luckmann, T. 1966. The Social Construction of Reality. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Beretta, A. & Crookes, G. 1993. Cognitive and social determinants of discovery inSLA. Applied Linguistics 14: 250-275.
Berkenkotter, C. & Huckin, T. N. 1995. Rethinking genre from a sociocognitive perspective. In C. Berkenkotter & T. N. Huckin (Eds.), Genre Knowledge in Disciplinary Communication: Cognition/Culture/Power (pp.1-25). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Berkowitz, S. & Taylor, B. 1981. The effects of text type and familiarity on the nature of information recalled by readers. In M. L. Kamil (Ed.), Directions in Reading: Research and Instruction (pp.: 157-161). Washington, D.C.: National Reading Conference.
Bernhardt, E. B. 1983. Testing foreign language reading comprehension: The immediate recall protocol. Die Unterrichtspraxis 16: 27-33.
Bernhardt, E. B. 1991. Reading Development in a Second Language: Theoretical, Empirical, and Classroom Perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bernhardt, E. B. 2000. Second language reading as a case study of reading scholarship in the 20th century. In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Peaarson & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume III (pp. 791-811). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bernhardt, E. 2003. Challenges to reading research from a multilingual world. Reading Research Quarterly 38: 112-117.
Bernhardt, E. B. & Kamil, M. L. 1995. Interpreting relationships between L1 and L2 reading: consolidating the Linguistic Threshold and the Linguistic Interdependence Hypotheses. Applied Linguistics 16:15-34.
Bex, A. 1996. Variety in Written English. Texts in Society: Societies in Text. London: Routledge.
Bhatia, V. K. 1993. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London/New York: Longman Group, UK Limited.
Bhatia, V. K. 1997. Genre-mixing in academic introductions. English for Specific Purposes 16(3): 181-196.
Bhatia, V. K. 2000. Genres in conflict. In A. Trosborg (Ed.), Analysing Professional Genres (pp. 147-162). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bialystok, E. 1997. The structure of age: in search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second Language Research 13: 116-137.
Bigenho, E. W. 1992. Conceptual Developments in Schema Theory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 351 392). Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
Birch, B. 2002. English L2 Reading: Getting to the Bottom. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Blanc, N., Kendeou, P., van den Broek, P. & Brouillet, D. 2008. Updating situation models during reading of news reports: Evidence from empirical data and simulations. Discourse Processes 45/2: 103-121.
Block, D. 2003. The Social Turn in Second Language Acquisition. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Block, E. 1986. The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly 20: 463-479.
Block, C. & Pressley, M. 2002. Comprehension Instruction: Research-based Best Practices. New York: Guilford Press.
Blum-Kulka, S. 1997. Discourse pragmatics. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as Social Interaction (pp. 8-63). London: Sage.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J. & Kasper, G. 1989. Investigating cross-cultural pragmatics: An introductory overview. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House & G. Kasper (Eds.),
Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies (pp. 1-34). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Botne, R. 2005. Cognitive schemas and motion verbs: COMING and GOING in Chindali (Eastern Bantu). Cognitive Linguistics 16/1: 43-80.
Brahman, T. & Bisanz, G. L. 1986. Reading ability and use of a story schema in recalling and reconstructing information. Journal of Educational Psychology 78: 323-333.
Bransford, J. D. & Johnson, M. K. 1972. Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11: 717-726.
Bransford, J. D. & Johnson, M. K. 1973. Consideration of some problems of comprehension. In W. Chase (Ed.), Visual Information Processing (pp. 383-438). New York: Academic Press.
Brantmeier, C. 2003. Beyond linguistic knowledge: Individual differences in second language reading. Foreign Language Annuals 36: 33-43.
Brantmeier, C. 2005. Effects of reader’s knowledge, text type, and test type on L1 and L2 reading comprehension in Spanish. The Modern Language Journal 89/1: 37-53.
Bremer, K., Roberts, C., Vasseur, M.-T., Simonot, M. & Broeder, P. 1996. Achieving Understanding: Discourse in Intercultural Encounters. London: Longman.
Brown, A. L. 1978. Knowing when, where, and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. In R. Glaser (Eds.), Advances in Instructional Psychology (pp. 77-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brown, A. L. 1980. Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C.Bruce & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brown, G. & Yule, G. 1987. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP.
Campbell, C. P. 1998. Rhetorical ethos: A bridge between high-context and low-context cultures. In S. Niemeier, C. P. Campbell & R. Dirven (Eds.), The Cultural Context in Business Communication (pp. 31-47). Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Carpenter, P. A. & Just, M. A. 1986. Cognitive reading process. In J. Orasanu, Reading Comprehension: from Research to Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Carrell, P. L. 1981. Culture-specific schemata in L2 comprehension. In R. Orem and J.F. Haskell (Eds.), Selected Papers from the Ninth Illinois TESOL/BE (pp. 123-132). Chicago, Illinois: Illinois TESOL/BE.
Carrell, P. L. 1983a. Three components of background knowledge in reading comprehension. Language Learning 33: 183-207.
Carrell, P. L. 1983b. Some issues in studying the role of schemata, or background knowledge, in second-language comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language 1: 81-92.
Carrell, P. L. 1983c. The effects of rhetorical organization on EFL/ESL readers. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, November 1983, at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
Carrell, P. L. 1984a. The effects of rhetorical organization on ESL readers. TESOL Quarterly 18/3:441-69.
Carrell, P. L. 1984b. Evidence of a formal schema in second language comprehension. Language Learning 34: 87-111.
Carrell, P. L. 1984c. Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications and applications. The Modern Language Journal 68: 332-343.
Carrell, P. L. 1985. Facilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly 19/4: 727-752.
Carrell, P. L. 1987. Content and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly 21: 461-481.
Carrell, P. L. 1988a. Interactive text processing: Implications for ESL/second language reading classrooms. In P L. Carrell J. Devine, and D. E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading (pp. 239-259), 1988.
Carrell, P. L. 1988b. Some causes of text-boundedness and schema-interference in ESL reading. In P. L. Carrell J. Devine, and D. E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive Approaches toSecond Language Reading (pp.101-113), 1988.
Carrell, P. L. 1989a. SLA and classroom instruction: Reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 9: 233-242.
Carrell, P. L. 1989b. Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. The Modern Language Journal 73: 121-134.
Carrell, P. L. 1991. Second language reading: Reading ability or language proficiency? Applied Linguistics 12/2: 159-179.
Carrell, P. L. 1992. Awareness of text structure: Effects on recall. Language Learning 42, 1-20.
Carrell, P. L., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. E. (Eds.), 1988. Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carrell, P. L. & Eisterhold, J. C. 1983. Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly 17: 553-73.
Carrell, P. L., Pharis, B. & Liberto, J. 1989. Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly 23/4: 647-678.
Carrell, P. L. & Wallace, B. 1983. Background knowledge: Context and familiarity in reading comprehension. In M. A. Clarke and J. Handscombe (Eds.) 1983: On TESOL '82. Washington, DC: TESOL.
Carrell, P. L. & Wise, T. E. 1998. The relationship between prior knowledge and topic interest in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20: 285-309.
Carson, J. E., Carrell, P. L., Silberstein, S. B. Kroll & Kuehn, P. A. 1990. Reading-writing relationships in first and second language. TESOL Quarterly 24: 245-66.
Casanave, C. P. 1988. Comprehension monitoring in ESL reading: A neglected essential. TESOL Quarterly 22/2: 283-302.
Chambliss, M. J. 1995. Text cues and strategies successful readers use to construct the gist of lengthy written arguments. Reading Research Quarterly 30(4): 779-807.
Chang, Y. F. 2006. On the use of the immediate recall task as a measure of second language reading comprehension. Language Testing 23/4: 520-543.
Chaudron, C. 2003. SLA research methods. In Doughty, C. J. & Long, M. H. (Ed.). Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chen, H. 1992. Reading comprehension in Chinese: Some implications from character reading times. In H. Chen & O. Tzeng (Eds.) Language Processing in Chinese (pp. 175-205). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Chen, L. 2004. On text structure, language proficiency, and reading comprehension test format interactions: A reply to Kobayashi, 2002. Language Testing 21/1: 228-234.
Chen, Z. & Henning, G. 1985. Linguistic and cultural bias in language proficiency tests. Language Testing 2/2: 155-163.
Chen, T. & Lin, H. 2006. Decreasing cognitive load for novice EFL learners: Effects of question and descriptive advance organizers in facilitating EFL learners’comprehension of an animation-based content lesson. System 34: 216-431.
Cheng, P. & Holyoak, K. 1985. Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology 17: 391-416.
Christie, F. 1999. Genre theory and ESL teaching: A systemic functional perspective. TESOL Quarterly 33/4: 759-763.
Chu, H. J., Swaffar, J. S. & Charney, D. H. 2002. Cultural representations of rhetorical conventions: The effects on reading recall. TESOL Quarterly 36/4: 511-541.
Clarke, M. & Silberstein, S. 1977. Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles for the ESL reading classroom. Language Learning 27/1: 135-154.
Clarke, M. A. 1979. Reading in Spanish and English: Evidence from adult ESL students. Language Learning 29: 121-50.
Coady, J. 1979. A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader. In R. Mackay, B. Barkman & R. R. Jordan (Eds.), Reading in a Second Language (pp. 5-12). Rowley, MA: Newburry House.
Cohen, A., Glasman, H., Rosenbaum-Cohen, P. R., Ferrara, J. & Fine, J. 1979. Reading English for specialized purposes: discourse analysis and the use of student informants. TESOL Quarterly 13: 551-64.
Cohen, D. J. & Snowden, J. L. 2008. The relations between document familiarity, frequency, and prevalence and document literacy performance among adult readers. Reading Research Quarterly 43/1: 9-26.
Collier, M. I. & Thomas, M. 1988. Cultural Identity in intercultural communication and interpretive perspective. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), International and Intercultural Communication Annual, Vol. 12. Theories in intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Conklin, K. & Schmitt, N. 2008. Formulaic sequences: Are they processed more quickly than nonformulaic language by native and nonnative speakers? Applied Linguistics 29/1: 72-89.
Connor, U. 1984. Recall of text: Differences between first and second language readers. TESOL Quarterly 18: 239-256.
Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J. & Petrella, J. N. 2004. Effective reading comprehension instruction: Examining child x instruction interaction. Journal of Educational Psychology 96/4: 682-698.
Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, G. 1994/1995. Discourse and Literature: The interplay of form and mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, G. 1997. Key concepts in ELT. ELT Journal 51/1: 86.
Cook, G. 2003. Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Croft, W. & Cruse, D. A. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP.
Cross, D. & Paris, S. 1988. Development and instructional analyses of children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 80: 131-142.
Crossley, S. A., McCarthy, P. M., Louwerse, M. M. & McNamara, D. S. 2007. A linguistic analysis of simplified and authentic texts. The Modern Language Journal 91/1: 15-30.
Crowhurst, M. 1987. The effects of reading instruction and writing instruction on reading and writing persuasion. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Association, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 281 148).
Cruse, A. 2004/2006. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cumming, A. H. 1994. Bilingual Performance in Reading and Writing. Ann Arbor: Language Learning/John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Cziko, G. A. 1980. Language competence and reading strategies: A comparison of first- and second-language oral reading errors. Language Learning 30: 101-14.
Dabrowska, E. 2004. Rules or schemas? Evidence from Polish. Language and Cognitive Processes 19/2: 225-271.
Davey, B. & Kapinus, B. A. 1985. Prior knowledge and recall of unfamiliar information: Reader and text factors. Journal of Educational Research 78: 147-152.
de Guerrero, M. C. M. & Villamil, O. 2000. Activating the ZPD: Mutual scaffolding in L2 peer revision. The Modern Language Journal 84: 51-68.
DeKeyser, R. & Juffs, A. 2005. Cognitive considerations in L2 learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 437-454). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). 1998. Collecting and Interpreting QualitativeMaterials. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Derewianka, B. 2003. Trends and issues in genre-based approaches. RELC Journal 34/2: 133-154.
Devine, J., Carrell, P. L. & Eskey, D. E. (Eds.). 1987. Research in Reading in English as a Second Language. Washington, DC: TESOL.
Donin, J., Graves, B. & Goyette, E. 2004. Second language text comprehension: Processing within a multilayered system. The Canadian Modern Language Review 61/1: 53-76.
Droop, M. 2003. Language proficiency and reading ability in first and second language learners. Reading Research Quarterly 38: 78-103.
Edwards, A. L. 1996. Reading proficiency assessment and the ILR/ACTFL text typology: A reevaluation. The Modern Language Journal 80/3: 350-361.
Ellis, R. 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language Teaching Research 4: 193-220.
Eskey, D. 1988. Holding in bottom: An interactive approach to the problems of second language readers. In P. L. Carrell, J. Devine & D. E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. 1988.
Eskey, D. 1997. Models of reading and the ESOL student: Implications and limitations. Focus on Basics 1(B) 9-11.
Fairclough, N. L. 1992a. Discourse and text: Linguistics and inter-textual analysis within discourse analysis. Discourse and Society 3/2: 193-217.
Fairclough, N. L. 1992b. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Farr, R., Pritehard, R. & Smitten, B. 1990. A description of what happens when an examinee takes a multiple-choice reading comprehension test. Journal of Educational Measurement 27: 209-26.
Ferstl, E. C. 1994. The Construction-Integration Model: A framework for studying context effects in sentence processing. In The Sixteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 289-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fine, E. C. 1984. The Folklore Text: From Performance to Print. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Fitzgerald, G. G. 1981. How many samples give a good readability estimate?: The Fry Graph. Journal of Reading 24: 404-10.
Flahive, D. E. & Snow, B. C. 1980. Measures of syntactic complexity in evaluating ESL compositions. In J.W. Oller, Jr. & K. Perkins (Eds.), Research in Language Testing (pp. 171-176). Rowley, MA: Newburry House.
Flavell, J. H. 1981. Cognitive monitoring. In W. P. Dickson (Ed.), Childern’s Oral Communication Skills (pp. 35-60). New York: Academic Press.
Flesch, R. F. 1948. A new readability yardstick. Journal of Applied Psychology 32: 221-33.
Floyd, P. & Carrell, P. L. 1987. Effects on ESL reading of teaching cultural content schema. Language Learning 37: 89-109.
Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Freedle, R. & Hale, G. 1979. Acquisition of new comprehension schemata for expository prose by transfer of a narrative schema. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New Directions in Discourse Processing. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Freedle, R. & Kostin, I. 1991. The prediction of SAT reading comprehension item difficulty for expository prose passages. Research Report RR 91-29. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Freedle, R. & Kostin, I. 1992. The prediction of GRE reading comprehension item difficulty for expository prose passages for each of three item types: main ideas, inferences, and explicit statements. Research Report RR 91-59. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Freedman, A. 1999. Beyond the text: towards understanding the teaching and learning of genres. TESOL Quarterly 33/4: 764-767.
Fries, C. C. 1962-5. Linguistics and Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Fry, E. 1977. Fry’s readability graph: Clarifications, validity, and extension to level 17. Journal of Reading 21: 242-52.
Fukkink, R. G., Hulstijn, J. & Simis, A. 2005. Does training in second-language word recognition skills affect reading comprehension? An experimental study. The Modern Language Journal 89/1: 54-75.
Gao, X. (Andy). 2006. Understanding changes in Chinese students’uses of learning strategies in China and Britain: A socio-cultural re-interpretation. System 34: 55-67.
Geisler, C. 1991. Toward a socio-cognitive model of literacy. In C. Bazerman & J. Paradis (Eds.), Textual Dynamics of the Professions: Historical and Contemporary Studies of Writing in Professional Communities (pp.171-190). Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
Gelderen, A. V., Schoonen, R., Glopper, K. D., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P. & Stevenson, M. 2004. Linguistic knowledge, processing speed, and metacognitiveknowledge in first- and second-language reading comprehension: A componential analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 96/1: 19-30.
Georgakopoulou, A. & Goutsos, D. 1997. Discourse Analysis: An introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Ghadessy, M. 1987. Is schema theory telling us anything new? A Journal of Language Teaching and Research in Southeast Asia 18/1: 91-97.
Gibson, S. 2008. Reading aloud: A useful learning tool? ELT Journal 62/1: 29-36.
Glenn, C. G. 1978. The role of episodic structure and of story length in children’s recall of simple stories. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17: 229-247.
Goldman, S. R. & Rakestraw, J. A. 2000. Structural aspects of construction meaning from text. In M. L. Kamil, R. B. Mosenthal, R D. Pearson & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Goldman, S. R. & Varma, S. 1995. CAPping the construction-integration model of discourse comprehension. In W. A. Weaver, S. Mannes & C. R. Fletcher (Eds.), Discourse Understanding: Essays in Honor of Walter Kintsch. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Goodman, K. 1967. Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. In ECT 412 Language Studies: Reading Curriculum: Reader. Deakin University. Also in Journal of the Reading Specialist 6: 126-135.
Goodman, K. S. 1969. Analysis of oral reading miscues: Applied psycholinguistics. Reading Research Quarterly 5: 9-29.
Goodman, K. S. 1973. Psycholinguistic universals of the reading process. In F. Smith (Eds.), Psycholinguistics and Reading (pp. 21-27). NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Goodman, K. S. & Burke, C. 1973. Theoretically Based Studies of Patterns of Miscues in Oral Reading Performance. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of HEW: Office of Education.
Gorin, J. S. 2002. Cognitive and psychometric modeling of text-based reading comprehension GRE-V test items. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.
Gorin, J. S. 2005. Manipulation of processing difficulty of reading comprehension test questions: the feasibility of verbal item generation. Journal of Educational Measurement 42: 351-73.
Gorin, J. S. & Embretson, S. E. 2006. Predicting item properties without tryout: cognitive modeling of paragraph comprehension items. Applied PsychologicalMeasurement.
Gough, P. B. 1985. One second of reading: Postscript. In H. Singer & R. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (3rd ed., pp. 687-88). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Gough, P. B., Ehri, L. C. & Treiman, R. 1992. Reading Acquisition. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Gould, E., Yanni, R. D., Smith, W. & Stanford, J. 1990. The Art of Reading: Context for Writing. New York: McGraw-Hall Publishing Company.
Grabe, W. 1988. What every EFL teacher should know about reading in English. Anglo-American Journal 7: 177-200.
Grabe, W. 1991. Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly 25/3: 375-406.
Grabe, W. 2000. Developments in reading research and their implication for computer-adaptive reading assessment. In Chalhoub-Deville, M. (Ed.), Issues in Computer-adaptive Tests of Reading (pp. 11-47). Cambridge: CUP.
Grabe, W. 2002. Narrative and expository macro-genres. In Johns, A. M. (Ed.), Genre in the Classroom: Multiple Perspectives (pp. 249-67). Mahwah, N J: Erlbaum.
Grabe, W. 2003. Using discourse patterns to improve reading comprehension. In K. Hill (Ed.), Proceeding of the 2002 JALT Conference (pp. 9-16). Tokyo: JALT Publications.
Grabe, W. 2004. Research on teaching reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 44-69.
Grabe, W. & Stoller, F. L. 2002. Teaching and Researching Reading. Pearson Education.
Graesser, A. C., Gernsbacher, M. A. & Goldman, S. R. (Ed.). 2003. Handbook of Discourse Processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Green, M. C. 2004. Transportation into narrative worlds: The role of prior knowledge and perceived realism. Discourse Processes 38/2: 247-266.
Greene, J. 1986. Language Understanding: A Cognitive Approach. Milton Keynes/Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Grellet, F. 1981. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: CUP.
Gui, S. 1985. Psycholinguistics. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Guthrie, J. T. 2003. Concept-oriented reading instruction. In A. Sweet & C. Snow (Eds.), Rethinking Reading Comprehension (pp. 115-140). New York: Guilford Press.
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., Scafiddi, N. T. & Tonks, S. 2004. Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology 96/3: 403-423.
Haenggi, D., Kintsch, W. & Gernsbcher, M. A. 1995. Spatial situation models and text comprehension. Discourse Processes 25: 314-22
Hall, E. T. 1998. Context and meaning. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (pp. 45-54) (8th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Hall, G. 1996. Review of Cook (1994). Language and Literature 5/1: 74-7.
Hall, J. K. 1995. (Re)creating our worlds with words: A sociohistorical perspective of face-to-face interaction. Applied Linguistics 16: 206-232.
Hall, J. K. 2002. Teaching and Researching Language and Culture. London: Pearson Education.
Hall, W., White, T. & Guthrie, L. 1986. Skilled reading and language development: Some key issues. In J. Orasanu (Ed.), Reading Comprehension: From research to practice (pp. 89-111). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Hampe, B. 2005. When down is not bad, and up not good enough: A usage-based assessment of the plus-minus parameter in image-schema theory. Cognitive Linguistics 16/1: 81-112.
Harrison, C. 1980. Readability in the Classroom. Cambridge: CUP.
Hasan, R. 1985. The structure of a text. In M. A. K. Halliday & R. Hasan (Eds.), Language Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective (pp. 52-69). Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Hatch, E. & Farhady, H. 1982. Research Design and Statistics for Applied Linguists. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury.
He, Y. 1993. The significance of prior knowledge in reading comprehension. In F. Konig, S. Gaies, Y. Gao, B. Li & D. Tang (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1993 International Symposium Language Teaching Methodology. The University of Northen Iowa Press.
Henderson, J. M., Singer, M. & Ferreira, F. 1995. Reading and Language Processing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Horiba, Y. 1996. Comprehension processes in L2 reading: Language competence, textual coherence, and inferences. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18:403-432.
Horiba, Y. 2000. Reader control in reading: Effects of language competence, text type, and task. Discourse Processes 29: 233-267.
Horst, M. 2005. Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. The Canadian Modern Language Review 62/3: 355-382.
Howard, R. W. 1987. Concepts and Schemata: An Introduction. London: Mackays of Chatham Ltd.
Hu, Z. 1994. Discourse Cohesion and Coherence. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Huang, S. 2006. Reading English for academic purposes: What situational factors may motivate learners to read? System 34: 371-383.
Huckin, T. 1997. Cultural aspect of genre knowledge. AILA Review: Applied Linguistics across Disciplines 12: 68-78.
Hudson, T. 1982. The effects of induced schemata on the "short-circuit" in L2 reading performance. Language Learning 32: 1-30.
Hudson, T. 1998. Theoretical perspectives on reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 18: 43-60.
Huey, E. B. 1908/1968. Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Hyland, K. 2000. Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Academic Writing. New York: Longman.
Hyland, K. 2002. Genre: language, context and literacy. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 22: 113-135.
Hymes, D. 1974. Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Iser, W. 1978. The Art of Reading. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Israel, S. E. (Ed.). 2005. Meta-cognition in Literacy Learning: Theory, Assessment, Instruction, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated.
Izumi, S. 2003. Comprehension and production processes in second language learning: In search of the psycholinguistic rationale of the output hypothesis. Applied Linguistics 24: 168-196.
Jeffries, L. 2001. Schema affirmation and White Asparagus: Cultural multilingualism among readers of texts. Language and Literature 10/4: 325-343.
Jogensen, M. W. & Phillips, L. 2002. Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method.Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage Publications, Inc.
Johnson, P. H. 1981. Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text. TESOL Quarterly 15: 169-181.
Johnson, P. H. 1982. Effects on reading comprehension of building background knowledge. TESOL Quarterly 16: 503-16.
Johnson, P. 1986. Acquisition of schema for comprehension and communication: A study of the reading-writing relationship in ESL. RELC Journal 17/1: 1-13.
Johnson, N. S. & Mandler, J. M. 1980. A tale of two structures: Underlying and surface forms in stories. Poetics 9: 51-86.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. 1983. Mental Models. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jung, E. H. 2003. The effects of organization markers on ESL learners’text understanding. TESOL Quarterly 37/3: 749-760.
Jurafsky, D. 1996. A probabilistic model of lexical semantic access and disambiguation. Cognitive Science 20: 177-194.
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. 1987. The Psychology of Reading and Language Comprehension. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kamhi-Stein, L. D. 2003. Reading in two languages: How attitudes toward home language and beliefs about reading affect the behaviours of“underprepared”L2 college readers. TESOL Quarterly 37: 35-71.
Kant, I. 1968. Critique of Pure Reason. (1st ed., 1781, 2nd ed., 1787, N. Kemp Smith, translator.) London: MacMillan Publishing Co.
Kaplan, R. B. 1966. Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language Learning 16: 1-20.
Kaplan, R. B. 1987. Cultural thought patterns revisited. In U. Connor & R. B. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text (pp. 9-22). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Kaplan, R. B. 1988. Contrastive rhetoric and second language learning: Notes toward a theory of contrastive rhetoric. In A. C. Purves (Ed.), Writing across Languages and Cultures: Issues in Contrastive Rhetoric (pp. 275-304). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Keshavarz, M. H., Atai, M. R. & Ahmadi H. 2007. Content schemata, linguistic simplification, and EFL readers’comprehension and recall. Reading in a Foreign Language 19/1: 19-33.
Kintsch, W. 1988. The role of knowledge in discourse processing: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review 95: 163-182.
Kintsch, W. 1992a. A cognitive architecture for comprehension. In H. L. Pick, P.vandenBroek & D. C. Knill (Eds.), The Study of Cognition: Conceptual and Methodological Issues (pp.143-64). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Kintsch, W. 1992b. How readers construct situational models for stories: The role of syntactic cues and causal references. In A. F. Kosslyn, and R. M. Shiffrin (Eds.), From Learning Theory to Connectionist Theory: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes (Vol. 2, pp. 261-278). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kintsch, W. 1998. Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. New York: CUP.
Kintsch, W. & Greene, E. 1978. The role of culture-specific schemata in the comprehension and recall of stories. Discourse Processes 1: 1-15.
Kintsch, W. & van Dijk, T. 1978. Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review 85: 363-394.
Kintsch, W. & Welsch, D. M. 1991. The construction-integration model: A framework for studying memory for text. In W. E. Hockley and S. Lewandowsky (Eds.), Relating Theory and Data: Essays on Human Memory (pp. 367-385). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kintsch, W. & Yarbrough, J. C. 1982. Role of rhetorical structure in text comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 828-834.
Kitao, S. K. 1989. Reading, Schema Theory and Second Language Learners. Tokyo: Eichosha Shinsha Co., LID.
Kitao, S. K. & Kitao, K. 2002. Testing reading. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 12: 161-178.
Klare, G. R. 1963. The Measurement of Readability. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Klare, G. R., Rowe, P. P., John, M. G. & Stolurow, L. M. 1969. Automation of the Flesch Reading Ease Readability Formula, with various options. Reading Research Quarterly 4(4): 550-559.
Knight, S. L., Padron, Y. N. & Waxman, H. C. 1985. The cognitive reading strategies of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly 19: 789-792.
Knutson, E. M. 2006. Cross-cultural awareness for second/foreign language learners. The Canadian Modern Language Review 62/4: 591-610.
Kobayashi, M. 2002. Method effects on reading comprehension test performance: Text organization and response format. Language Testing 19/2: 193-220.
Koda, K. 1988. Cognitive processes in second language reading: Transfer of L1 reading skills and strategies. Second Language Research 4: 133-156.
Koda, K. 2004. Insights into Second Language Reading. New York: Cambridge: CUP.
Koda, K. 2007. Reading and language learning: Crosslinguistic constraints on second language reading development. Language Learning 57 (s1): 1-44.
Koffa, K. 1935. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Kolers, P. A. 1969. Reading is only incidentally visual. In K.S. Goodman and J.T. Fleming (Eds.), Psycholinguistics and the Teaching of Reading (pp. 8-16). Newark, Del: International Reading Association.
Kolers, P. A. 1973. Reading temporally and spatially transformed texts. In Goodman, K. S. (Ed.), The Psycholinguistic Nature of Reading (pp. 29-40). Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Konheim-Kalkstein, Y. L. & van den Broek, P. 2008. The effect of incentives on cognitive processing of text. Discourse Processes 45/2: 180-194.
Kramsch, C. J. 1981. Discourse Analysis and Second Language Teaching. Arlington: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Kramsch, C. J. 1993. Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP.
Labov, W. 1966. The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Centre for Applied Linguistics.
Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Landry, K. L. 2002. Schemata in second language reading. The Reading Matrix 3/2: 1-14.
Langer, J. A., Campbell, J. R., Neuman, S. B., Mullis, I. V. S., Persky, H. R. & Donahue, R. L. 1995. Reading Assessment Redesigned. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Lantolf, J. P. (Ed.). 1994. Sociocultural theory, and second language learning [Special issue]. The Modern Language Journal 78/4.
Lantolf, J. P. 2000. Introducing socio-cultural theory. In I. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Socio-cultural Theory and Second Language Learning (pp. 1-26). Oxford: OUP.
Lantolf, J. P. 2005. Sociocultural and second language learning research: An exegesis. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 335-354). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lantolf, J. P. & Pavlenko, A. 1995. Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 15: 108-124.
Lantolf, P. & Thorne, S. L. 2006. Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. 1980. Discourse Analysis in Second Language Research. Rowley: Newbury House Publishers.
Larsen-Freeman, D. 2002. Language acquisition and language use from a chaos/complexity theory perspective. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives (pp. 33-46). London: Continuum.
Lave, J. 1998. Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics and Culture in everyday Life. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, G. 2002. The influence of several factors on reliability for complex reading comprehension tests. Journal of Educational Measurement 39/2: 149-164.
Lee, J. F. 1986. On the use of the recall task to measure L2 reading comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 8: 201-211.
Lee, M. Y. P. 2003. Discourse structure and rhetoric of English narratives: Differences between native English and Chinese non-native English writers. Text 23/3: 347-368.
Lee, Sang-Ki. 2007. Effects of textual enhancement and topic familiarity on Korean EFL students’reading comprehension and learning of passive form. Language Learning 57/1: 87-118.
Leeser, M. J. 2004. The effects of topic familiarity, mode, and pausing on second language learners’comprehension and focus on form. SSLA 26: 587-615.
Leeser, M. J. 2007. Learner-based factors in L2 reading comprehension and processing grammatical form: Topic familiarity and working memory. Language Learning 57 (2): 229-270.
Leki, I. 1991. Twenty-five years of contrastive rhetoric: Text analysis and writing pedagogies. TESOL Quarterly 25/1: 123-142.
Leow, R. 1997. The effects on input enhancement and text length on adult L2 readers’comprehension and intake in second language acquisition. Applied Language Learning 8: 151-182.
Li, J. 2003. U. S. and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 95/2: 258-267.
Li, X. 1996. "Good Writing" in Cross-cultural Context. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Lipson, M. Y. 1983. The influence of religious affiliation on children’s memory for text information. Reading Research Quarterly 18: 448-457.
Long, M. H. & Doughty, C. J. 2003. SLA and cognitive science. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 866-869). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Ma, Z. et al. 1994. Aspects of Chinese Culture (English version). Tianjin, China: Nankai University Press.
Malinowski, B. 1923. The problem of meaning in primitive languages. In C. C. Ogden & L A. Richards (Eds.), The Meanings of Meaning. London: Roufledge and Kegan Paul.
Malinowski, B. 1935. Coral Gardens and Their Magic. Vol 2. London: George Allen and Urwin.
McCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP.
McCafferty, S. 2004. Space for cognition: Gesture and second language learning. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 14: 148-165.
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. 1981. An interactive activation model of context in letter perception, Part 1: An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88: 365-407.
McNamara, D. S. & Kintsch, W. 1996. Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes 22: 247-288.
Mandler, J. M. 1978a. Categorical and Schematic Organization in Memory (Tech. Rep. No. 16). San Diego: University of California, Centre for Human Information Processing.
Mandler, J. M. 1978b. A code in the node: The use of a story schema in retrieval. Discourse Processes 1: 14-35.
Mandler, J. M. & Johnson, N. S. 1977. Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology 9: 111-151.
Mandler, J. M., Scribner, S., Cole, M. & DeForest, M. 1980. Cross-cultural invariance in story recall. Child Development 51: 19-26.
Markham, P. & & Latham, M. 1987. The influence of religion-specific background knowledge on the listening comprehension of adult second language students. Language Learning 37: 157-170.
Mason, D. 1992. The role schemata and scripts in language learning. System 20/1: 45-50.
Maxwell, J. A. et al. (Eds.). 1978. America’s Fascinating Indian Heritage. Pleasantville, NY: The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc.
Meyer, B. J. F. 1975. The Organization of Prose and Its Effects on Memory. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co.
Meyer, B. J. F. 1977. The structure of prose: Effects of learning and memory and implications for educational practice. In Richard C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro & W. E.Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge (pp. 179-208). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Meyer, B. J. F. 1981. Basic research on prose comprehension: A critical review. In D. F. Fisher & C. W. Peters (Eds.), Comprehension and the Competent Reader: Inter-specialty Perspectives (pp. 8-35). New York: Praeger.
Meyer, B. J. 1984. Text dimensions and cognitive processing. In H. Mandl, N. L. Stein & T. Trabasso (Eds.), Learning and Comprehension of Text (pp. 3-52). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Meyer, B. J. 1985. Prose analysis: Purposes, procedures, and problems. In B. Britton & J. Black (Eds.), Understanding of Expository Text (pp. 11-64). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Meyer, B., Brandt, D. & Bluth, G. 1980. Use of top-level structure in text: Key for reading comprehension of ninth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly 1: 72-103.
Meyer, B. J. F. & Freedle, R. O. 1984. The effects of different discourse types on recall. American Educational Research Journal.
Meyer, B. J. F. & Poon, L. 2001. Effects of structure strategy training and signaling on recall of text. Journal of Educational Psychology 93: 141-159.
Meyer, B. J. F. & Rice, G. E. 1982. The interaction of reader strategies and the organization of text. Text 2 (1-3): 155-192.
Miller, L. D. 1990. ESL reading comprehension instruction. RELC Journal 21/1: 79-94.
Minsky, M. 1975. A framework for representing knowledge. In P. H. Winston (Ed.), The Psychology of Computer Vision (pp. 211-277). New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Moore, L. C. 1999. Language socialization research and French language education in Africa: A Cameroonian case study. The Canadian Modern Language Review 56: 329-350.
Morrison, L. 2004. Comprehension monitoring in first and second language reading. The Canadian Modern Language Review 61/1: 77-106.
Mross, E. F. & Roberts, J. 1992. The Construction-integration Model: A Program Manual. No. 92-14. University of Colorado, Institute of Cognitive Science.
Myers, J. L. & O’Brien, E. J. 1998. Assessing the discourse representation during reading. Discourse Processes 26: 131-157.
Nassaji, H. 2002. Schema theory and knowledge-based processes in second language reading comprehension: a need for alternative perspectives. Language Learning 52/2:439-481.
Nassaji, H. 2007. Schema theory and knowledge-based processes in second language reading comprehension: a need for alternative perspectives. Language Learning 57/sl: 79-113.
Nassaji, H. & Geva, E. 1999. The contribution of phonological and orthographic processing skills to adult ESL reading: Evidence from native speakers of Farsi. Applied Psycholinguistics 20: 241-267.
Nunan, D. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. New York: Prentice Hall.
Nuttall, C. 1987. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Nystrand, M. 2006. Research on the role of classroom discourse as it affects reading comprehension. Research in the Teaching of English 41/4: 392-412.
Oakhill, J. & Gernham, A. 1988. Becoming a Skilled Reader. London: Prentice Hall.
Ochs, E. 1991. Socialization through language and interaction: A theoretical introduction. Issues in Applied Linguistics 2: 143-147.
Odlin, T. 2003. Cross-linguistic influence. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long, The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 436-486). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Ohta, A. S. 2000. Re-thinking interaction in SLA: Developmentally appropriate assistance in the zone of proximal development and the acquisition of L2 grammar. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning (pp. 53-80). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Oller, J. W. Jr. 1972. Assessment competence in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly 6: 313-323.
Olson, C. B. & Land, R. 2007. A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English 41/3: 269-303.
O’Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. 1990. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Orasanu, J. 1986. Reading Comprehension: From Research to Practice. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Oxford, R. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. MA: Heinle and Heinle.
Pae, T. 2004. Gender effect on reading comprehension with Korean EFL learners.System 32: 265-281.
Palincsar, A. S. & Brown, A. L. 1984. Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1: 117-175.
Paltridge, B. 1994. Genre analysis and the identification of textual boundaries. Applied Linguistics 15/3: 288-299.
Paltridge, B. 1997. Genre, Frames, and Writing in Research Setting. Philadelphia: John, Benjamins.
Paltridge, B. 2001. Genre and Language Learning Classroom. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Paltridge, B. 2002. Genre knowledge and teaching tertiary writing. Plenary Speech at the 5th Biennial Tertiary Writing Colloquium, December 5-6, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland.
Pappas, C. C. & Pettegrew, B. S. 1998. The role of genre in the psycholinguistic guessing game of reading. Language Arts 75/1: 36-44.
Paris, S. G. & Meyers, M. 1981. Comprehension monitoring, memory, and study strategies of good and poor readers. Journal of Reading Behaviour 13: 5-22.
Parry, K. 1993. The social construction of reading strategies: New directions for research. Journal of Research in Reading 16: 148-158.
Parry, K. 1996. Cultural, literacy and L2 reading. TESOL Quarterly 30: 665-692.
Pearson, P. D. & Fielding, L. 1991. Comprehension instruction. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research. Vol. II (pp. 815-860). New York: Longman.
Perez, J. & Homer, S. P. 1987. Reading ability, comprehension and test validity: Effects of three procedures for administering test items. Journal of Educational Research 81:116-119.
Perfetti, C. A. 1985. Reading Ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Perfetti, C. A. 2003. The universal grammar of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading 7: 3-24.
Perkins, K. & Brutten, S. R. 1988. A behavioral anchoring analysis of three ESL reading comprehension tests. TESOL Quarterly 22: 607-22.
Perkins, K., Brutten, S. R. & Pohlmann, J. T. 1989. First and second language reading comprehension. RELC Journal 20/2: 1-9.
Phakiti, A. 2003. A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategy use to EFL reading achievement test performance. Language Testing 20/1: 26-56.
Phakiti, A. 2008. Construct validation of Bachman and Palmer's (1996) strategic competence model over time in EFL reading tests. Language Testing 25/2: 237-272.
Phillips, N. & Hardy, C. 2002. Discourse Analysis: Investigating Processes of Social Construction. Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage Publications, Inc.
Pichette, F. 2005. Time spent on reading and reading comprehension in second language learning. The Canadian Modern Language Review 62/2: 243-262.
Poole, D. 1992. Language socialization in the second language classroom. Language Learning 42: 593-616.
Potter, R. F., Wang, Z., Sanders-Jackson, A., Koruth, J., Kurita, S. & Lang, A. 2005. Information density and structural complexity in radio messages: Are two concepts better than one? Paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association. NY: New York.
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. 1995. Verbal Reports of Reading: The Nature of Constructively Responsive Reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pretoius, E. J. 2006. The comprehension of logical relations in expository texts by students who study through the medium of ESL. System 34: 432-450.
Pritchard, R. H. 1990. The effects of cultural schemata on reading processing strategies. Reading research Quarterly 25: 273-295.
Proctor, C. P., August, D., Carlo, M. S. & Snow, C. 2006. The intriguing role of Spanish language vocabulary knowledge in predicting English reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 98/1: 159-169.
Pulido, D. 2004. The relationship between text comprehension and second language incidental vocabulary acquisition: A matter of topic familiarity? Language Learning 54/3: 469-523.
Pulido, D. 2007a. The effects of topic familiarity and passage sight vocabulary on L2 lexical inferencing and retention through reading. Applied Linguistics 28/1: 66-86.
Pulido, D. 2007b. The relationship between text comprehension and second language incidental vocabulary acquisition: A matter of topic familiarity? Language Learning 57(s1): 155-199.
Qi, L. & Wang, C. 1988. Background knowledge and language complexity in reading comprehension. Foreign Language Teaching and Research 74/2: 24-30.
Rasool, J. M. & Royer, J. M. 1986. Assessment of reading comprehension using the sentence verification technique: Evidence from narrative and descriptive texts. Journal of Educational Research 79: 180-184.
Raygor, A .L. & Raygor, R. D. 1990. Effective Reading: Improving Reading Rates andComprehension. McGraw-Hill Book Company & World Publishing Corporation.
Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. 1989. The Psychology of Reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Reed, S. K. 1993. A schema-based theory of transfer. In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on Trial: Intelligence, Cognition, and Instruction (pp. 39-67). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Reynolds, R. E., Taylor, M. A., Steffensen, M. S., Shirley, L. L. & Anderson, R. C. 1982. Cultural schemata and reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly 17: 353-366.
Reznitskaya, A. & Anderson, R. C. 2001. The argument schema and learning to reason. In C. C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension Instruction: Research-based Best Practices (pp. 319-334). New York: Guilford.
Richer, M. A. 1976. Effects of sentence complexity on the reading comprehension of syntactic structures. Journal of Educational Psychology 68: 800-806.
Richgels, D., Mcgee, L. M., Lomax, R. G. & Sheard, C. S. 1987. Awareness of four text structures: Effects on recall of expository text. Reading Research Quarterly 22/2: 177-196.
Riggenbach, H. 1999. Discourse Analysis in the Language Classroom: The Spoken Language, Vol. 1. Ann Arbor: The Uviversity of Michigan Press.
Riley, G. L. & Lee, J. F. 1996. A comparison of recall and summary protocols as measures of second language reading comprehension. Language Testing 13/2: 173-189.
Robb, L. 1996. Reading Strategies that Work: Teaching Your Students to Become Better Readers. New York: Schlastic.
Rodenhausen, H. 1992. Mathematical aspects of Kintsch’s model of discourse comprehension. Psychological Review 99: 547-549.
Rogoff, B. 1990. Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. New York: Oxford University Press.
Roller, C. M. 1988. Transfer of cognitive academic competence and L2 reading in a rural Zimbabwean primary school. TESOL Quarterly 22: 303-28.
Rosenblatt, L. M. 1978a. The Reader, The Text, The Poem: A Transactional Theory of the Literary Text. Cambridge, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Rosenblatt, L. M. 1978b. Viewpoints: Transactional versus interaction—a terminological rescue operation. Research in the Teaching of English 19: 96-107.
Rott, S. 2004. A comparison of output interventions and unenhanced reading conditionson vocabulary acquisition and text comprehension. The Canadian Modern Language Review 61/2: 169-202.
Rumelhart, D. E. 1975. Notes on a schema for stories. In D. C. Bobrow & A. M. Collins (Eds.), Representation and Understanding. New York: Academic Press.
Rumelhart, D. E. 1977a. Understanding and summarizing brief stories. In D. LaBerge & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), Basic Processes in Reading: Perception and Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rumelhart, D. E. 1977b. Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and Performance IV (pp. 573-603). New York: Academic Press.
Rumelhart, D. E. 1980. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rumelhart, D. E. & Ortony, A. 1977. The representation of knowledge in memory. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge (pp. 99-135). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rupp, A. A., Ferne, T. & Choi, H. 2006. How assessing reading comprehension with multiple-choice questions shapes the construct: A cognitive processing perspective. Language Testing 23/4: 441-474.
Sadoski, M. 1999. Comprehending comprehension (Essay book review). Reading Research Quarterly 34: 493-500.
Sadoski, M., Paivio, A. & Goetz, E. T. 1991. A critique of schema theory in reading and a dual coding alternative. Reading Research Quarterly 26/4: 463-484.
Samuels. J. 1983. A cognitive approach to factors influencing reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Research 76: 261-266.
Samuels, J. & Kamil, M. 1984. Models of the reading process. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil & Mosenthal (Eds.), The Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 185-224). New York: Longman.
Samuels, S. J., Tennyson, R., Sax, L., Mulcahy, P., Schermer, N. & Hajovy, H. 1988. Adult's use of text structure in a recall of a scientific article. Journal of Educational Research 81/3: 171-175.
Sanjose, V., Vidal-Abarca, E. & Padilla, O. M. 2006. A connectionist extension to Kintsch's Construction-Integration Model. Discourse Processes 42/1: 1-35.
Sasaki, M. 2000. Effects of cultural schemata on students’test-taking processes for cloze tests: A multiple data source approach. Language Testing 17/1: 85-114.
Schank, R. C. 1982. Dynamic Memory: A Theory of Reminding and Learning inComputers and People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schank, R. C. & Abelson, R. P. 1977. Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding: An Enquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schueller, J. 2004. Gender and foreign language reading comprehension: The effects of strategy training. Southern Journal of Linguistics 27/1: 45-65.
Schumann, J. H. 1978. The acculturation model for second language acquisition. In R. Gingras (Ed.), Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching (pp. 27-50), 1978. Arlington, VA: Centre for Applied Linguistics.
Schumann, J. H. 1986. Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7/5: 379-392.
Scollon, R. 2002. Cross-cultural learning and other catastrophes. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language Acquisition and Language Socialisation (pp.121-139). New York: Continnum.
Scollon, R. & Scollon, S. 2001. Intercultural Communication (9th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Scott, M. & Carioni, Lilia, et al. 1984. Using a "standard exercise" in teaching reading comprehension. ELT Journal 38: 114-119.
Sealey, A. & Carter. B. 2004. Applied Linguistics as Social Science. London: Continuum.
Seliger, H. W. & Shohamy, E. 1989. Second Language Research Methods. London: OUP.
Selinker, L., Kim, D. & Bandi-Rao, S. 2004. Linguistic structure with processing in second language research: is a‘unified theory’possible? Second Language Research 20/1: 77-94.
Semino, E. 1995. Schema theory and the analysis of text world in poetry. Language and Literature 4/2: 79-108.
Semino, E. 1997. Language and World Creation in Poems and Other Texts. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman.
Seng, G. H. & Fatimah, H. 2006. Use of L1 in L2 reading comprehension among tertiary ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language 18/1: 29-54.
Shiotsu, T. & Weir, C. J. 2007. The relative significance of syntactic knowledge and vocabulary breadth in the predication of reading comprehension test performance. Language Testing 24/1: 99-128.
Shook, D. J. 1999. What foreign language reading recalls reveal about the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning 10: 39-76.
Short, M. & Alderson, J. C. 1989. Reading Literature. In M. Short (Ed.) Reading,Analysing and Teaching Literature (pp. 72-119). London: Longman.
Short, M. & van Peer, W. 1989. Accident! Stylisticians Evaluate: Aims and Methods of Stylistic Analysis. In M. Short (Ed.) Reading, Analysing and Teaching Literature (pp. 22-71). London: Longman.
Silberstein, S. 1987. Let’s take another look at reading: Twenty-five years of reading instruction. English Teaching Forum 25: 28-35.
Skehan, P. 1989. Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold.
Skehan, P. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: OUP.
Skehan, P. & Foster, P. 2001. Cognition and tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction (pp. 183-205). Cambridge University Press.
Smith, F. 1978-82. Reading. Cambridge: Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Smith, F. 1994/2004. Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and Learning to Read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, W. A. 1923. The Reading Process. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Song, M. 1998. Vocabulary Teaching in the Context of Extensive Reading. In ELI Teaching: A Journal of Theory and Practice. May 28, 1998.
Sparks, R. L, Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Humbach, N. & Javorsky, J. 2008. Early first-language reading and spelling skills predict later second-language reading and spelling skills. Journal of Educational Psychology 100/1: 162-174.
Spiro, R. J. 1978. Beyond schema availability. Paper presented at the Annual Meaning of the National Reading Conference, St. Peterburg, December 1978.
Spiro, R. J. & Tirre, W. C. 1979. Individual differences in schema utilization during discourse processing. Technical Report, No. 111. Champaign, Ill.: Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois.
Stanovich, K. 1980. Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly 16: 32-71.
Stanovich, K. 1990. Concepts of developmental theories of reading skill: Cognitive resources, automaticity, and modularity. Developmental Review 10: 72-100.
Steffensen, M. S. 1986. Register, cohesion, and cross-cultural reading comprehension. Applied Linguistics 7/1: 71-85.
Steffensen, M. S., Joag-Dev, C. & Anderson, R. C. 1979. A cross-cultural perspective on reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly 15: 10-29.
Stein, N. L. & Glenn, C. G. 1979. An analysis of story comprehension in elementaryschool children. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New Directions in Discourse Processing. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Stein, N. L. & Trabasso, T. 1982. What's in a story: An approach to comprehension and instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in Instructional Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 213-254). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stevens, K. 1982. Can we improve reading by teaching background information? Journal of Reading 25: 326-329.
Stubbs, M. 1983. Discourse Analysis: The sociolinguistic analysis of natural language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publisher Ltd.
Swaffer, J. 1988. Readers, texts, and second languages: The interactive processes. Modern Language Journal 72: 123-19.
Swaffer, J., Arens, K. & Byrnes, H. 1991. Reading for Meaning: An integrated approach to language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Swales, J. M. 1988. Discourse Communities, Genres and English as an International Language. World Englishes 7/2: 211-20.
Swales, J. M. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M. 2002. On models of applied discourse analysis. In C. Candlin (Ed.), Research and Practice in Professional Discourse (pp. 61-77). Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press.
Taguchi, N. 2008a. Comprehending implied meaning in English as a foreign language. The Modern Language Journal 89/4: 543-562.
Taguchi, N. 2008b. Cognition, language contact, and the development of pragmatic comprehension in a study-abroad context. Language Learning 58/1: 33-71.
Takeuchi, O. & Ikeda, M. 2006. Clarifying the differences in learning EFL reading strategies: An analysis of portfolios. System 34: 384-398.
Tansley, A. E. 1967. Reading and Remedial Reading. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Tapiero, I. & Denhière, G. 1995. Simulating recall and recognition using Kintsch’s Construction-Integration model. In W. A. Weaver, S. Mannes & C. R. Fletcher (Eds.), Discourse Understanding: Essays in Honor of Walter Kintsch (pp. 211-232). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Taylor, I. 1995. Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory (2rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, I. & Taylor, M. M. 1983. The Psychology of Reading. NY: Academic Press.
Thorndyke, P. W. 1984. Applications of schema theory in cognitive research. In J. R. Anderson & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Tutorials in Learning and Memory (pp. 167-191). San Francisco: Freeman.
Thorne, S. 2005. Epistemology, politics and ethics in sociocultural theory. Modern Language Journal 89: 393-409.
Tian, G. S. 1990. The effects of rhetorical organization in expository prose ESL readers in Singapore. RELC Journal 21/2: 1-13.
Tierney, R. J. & Cunningham, J. W. 1984. Research on teaching reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 609-654). New York: Longman.
Treiman, R. 2001. Linguistics and reading. In M. Aronoff & J. Rees-Miller (Eds.), The Handbook of Linguistics (pp. 664-672). Oxford: The Blackwell Publishers.
Trites, L. & McGroarty, M. 2005. Reading to learn and reading to integrate: New tasks for reading comprehension tests? Language Testing 22/2: 174-210.
Trosborg, A. 2000. Analyzing Professional Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Underwood, G. & Batt, V. 1996. Reading and Understanding: An Introduction to the Psychology of Reading. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Ungerer, F. & Schmid, H. J. 2001. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Usó-Juan, E. & Martínez-Flor, A. 2006. Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four Language Skills. Mouton de Gruyter.
van Dijk, T. 1985. Strategic discourse comprehension. In Bailmer, T. (Ed.), Linguistic Dynamics: Discourses, Procedures, and Evolution (pp. 30-61). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
van Dijk, T. & Kintsch, W. 1983. Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. New York: Academic Press.
van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., de Glopper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P. & Stevenson, M. 2004. Linguistic knowledge, processing speed, and metacognitive knowledge in first- and second-language reading comprehension: A componential analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 96/1: 19-30.
VanPatten, B. (Ed.). 2004. Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. In M. Cole, V. I. Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. 1962/1986. Thought and Language. (A. Kozulin, Trans. and Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wagoner, S. A. 1983. Comprehension monitoring: What it is and what we know about it. Reading Research Quarterly 28: 328-346.
Wallace, C. 1992. Reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walter, C. 2004. Transfer of reading comprehension skills to L2 is linked to mental representations of text and to working memory. Applied Linguistics 25/3: 315-339.
Wang, C. & Qi, L. 1992. Reading in a foreign language: A language proficiency problem or a reading ability problem? In S. Gui (Ed.), The Psychology of Chinese Learners of English. Changsha: Hunan Education Press.
Wardhaugh, R. 1969. Reading: A Linguistic Perspective. New York: Harcourt Brace & World, Inc.
Warren, W. H., Nicholas, D. W. & Trabasso, T. 1979. Event chains and inferences in understanding narratives. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New Directions in Discourse Processing (pp. 23-52). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Watson-Gegeo, K. A. 2004. Mind, language, and epistemology: Toward a language socialization paradigm for SLA. The Modern Language Journal 88: 331-350.
Weaver, C. 1980. Psycholinguistics and Reading. Cambridge: Winthrop Publishers Inc. Webb, S. 2005. Receptive and productive vocabulary learning: The effects of reading and writing on word knowledge. SSLA 27: 33-52.
Webb, S. 2008. Receptive and productive vocabulary sizes of L2 learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 30/1: 79-95.
Whalley, R 1982. Argument in text and reading process. In A. Flammer & W. Kintsh, (Eds.), Discourse Processing (pp. 495-508). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Widdowson, H. G. 1983. Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: OUP.
Widdowson, H. G. 1984. Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Oxford: OUP.
Wierzbicka, A. 1985. Different cultures, different languages, different speech acts. Journal of Pragmatics 9: 145-163.
Williams, J. P., Hall, K. M., deCani, Lauer, K. D., Stafford, K. B. & DeSisto, L. A. 2005. Expository text comprehension in the primary grade classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology 97/4: 530-550.
Wilson, P. & Anderson, R. C. 1986. What they don’t know will hurt them: The role of prior knowledge in comprehension. In Orasanu J. (Ed.), Reading Comprehension: From Research to Practice. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wiseman, R. L. & Koester, J. 1993. Intercultural Competence. Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
Woff, D. 1987. Some assumptions about second language text comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 9: 307-326.
Yamashita, J. 2004. Reading attitudes in L1 and L2, and their influence on L2 extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 16: 1-19.
Yamashita, J. 2007. The relationship of reading attitudes between L1 and L2: An investigation of adult EFL learners in Japan. TESOL Quarterly 41/1: 81-105.
Yang, D. 1999. Interlanguage Errors Cross-linguistic Influence: A Corpus-based Approach to the Chinese EFL Learners’Written Production. Unpublished doctorate dissertation. Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.
Yorio, C. A. 1971. Some sources of reading problems for foreign language learners. Language Learning 21: 107-115.
Yu, Ming-chung. 2008. Teaching and learning sociolinguistic skills in university EFL classes in Taiwan. TESOL Quarterly 42/1: 31-53.
Zhu, Y. 2002. The challenges for cross-cultural genre study. Paper presented at the 5th Biennial Colloquium Tertiary Writing Network, December 5-6, Auckland University of Technology.
Zhu, Y. 2005. Written Communication across Cultures: A Sociocognitive Perspective on Business Genres. Philadelphia, PA, USA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Zhu, Y. & Hildebrandt, H. 2003. Greek and Chinese classical rhetoric—The root of cultural differences in marketing communication. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 14/4: 89-114.
Zimmerman, B. J. 1989. A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 13/8: 329-39.
Zimmerman, E. N. 1994. On definition and rhetorical genre. In A. Freedman & P. Medway (Eds.), Genre and the New Rhetoric (pp. 125-132). London: Taylor & Francis.
Zuengler, J. & Cole, K. 2005. Language socialization and second language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 301-16). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zuengler, J. & Miller, E. R. 2006. Cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives: Two parallel SLA worlds? TESOL Quarterly 40/1: 35-58.
Zwaan, R. A., Langston, M. C. & Graesser, A. C. 1995. The construction of situation models in narrative comprehension: An event-indexing model. Psychological Science 6: 292-297.