Why Police Kill Black Males with Impunity: Applying Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to Address the Determinants of Policing Behaviors and "Justifiable" Homicides in the USA

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Why Police Kill Black Males with Impunity: Applying Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to Address the Determinants of Policing Behaviors and "Justifiable" Homicides in the USA

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作者：Keon L. Gilbert ; Rashawn Ray
关键词：Black men’s health ; Health inequalities ; Police brutality ; Critical race theory ; Public Health Critical Race Praxis ; Intersectionality ; #BlackLivesMatter
刊名：Journal of Urban Health
出版年：2016
出版时间：April 2016
年：2016
卷：93
期：1-supp
页码：122-140
全文大小：293 KB
参考文献：1.Parks SE, Johnson LL, McDaniel DD, Gladden M. Surveillance for violent deaths—national violent death reporting system, 16 states, 2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014; 63(SS01): 1–33.
2.Gabrielson R, Jones RG, Sagara E. Deadly Force, in Black and White: a ProPublica analysis of killings by police shows outsize risk for young black males. 2015. Available at: http://www.propublica.org/article/deadly-force-in-black-and-white?utm_source=et&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=dailynewsletter**# .
3.Krieger N, Kiang MV, Chen JT, Waterman PD. Trends in US deaths due to legal intervention among black and white men, age 15–34 years, by county income level: 1960–2010. Harvard Public Heal Rev. 2015;3:1–5. Available at: http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/190/ .
4.National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2010: with special feature on death and dying. Hyattsville; 2011.
5.Rich JA, Ro M. A poor Man’s Plight: Uncovering the Disparity in Men’s Health. MI: Battle Creek; 2002.
6.Gilbert KL, R Ray, Siddiqi A, et al. Visible and Invisible Trends in African American men’s health: pitfalls and promises for addressing inequalities. Annu Rev Public Health. 2016;37.
7.Gilbert KL, Ray R, Langston M. Social Dis(ease) of African American Males and Health. In: Yeakey CC, Thompson VLS, Wells A, eds. Urban Ills: Twenty-First Century Complexities of Urban Living in Global Contexts, vol. II. Lanham: Lexington Books; 2014: 23–36.
8.Wolfers J, Leonhardt D, Quealy K. 1.5 Million missing black men. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/04/20/upshot/missing-black-men.html?_r=0&abt=0002&abg=0 . Published April 2015.
9.Pettit B. Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress. New York City: The Russell Sage Foundation; 2012.
10.Pager D. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2007.CrossRef
11.Goffman A. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2014.CrossRef
12.Gilbert KL, Ray R, Langston M. Vicious Cycle of Unequal Treatment and Social Dis(ease) of African American Males and Health. In: Yeakey CC, Thompson VLS, Wells A, eds. Urban Ills: Twenty-First Century Complexities of Urban Living in Global Contexts, Volume Ii, vol. 2. Lanham: Lexington Books; 2014: 23–36.
13.Arias E. United states life tables, 2010. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2014; 63(7): 1–62.PubMed
14.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC wonder: leading causes of death. Atlanta 2006. Available at: wonder.cdc.gov.
15.Hokayem C, Heggeness M. Living in Near Poverty in the United States: 1966–2012. Suitland; 2014.
16.Gilbert KL, Elder K, Lyons S, Kaphingst KA, Blanchard M, Goodman MS. Racial composition over the lifecourse: examining separate and unequal environments and the risk for heart disease for black men. Ethn Dis. 2015;25(3).
17.Haritatos J, Mahalingam R, James SA. John Henryism, self-reported physical health indicators, and the mediating role of perceived stress among high socio-economic status Asian immigrants. Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64(6): 1192–203. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.10.037 .CrossRef PubMed
18.James SA, Hartnett SA, Kalsbeek WD. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. J Behav Med. 1983; 6: 259–78. doi:10.1007/BF01315113 .CrossRef PubMed
19.Wagner L. Hypertension in African-American males. Clin Excell Nurse Pract. 1998; 2(4): 225–31.PubMed
20.Jones RA, Underwood SM, Rivers BM. Reducing prostate cancer morbidity and mortality in African American men: issues and challenges. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2007; 11(6): 865–72. doi:10.1188/07.cjon.865-872 .CrossRef PubMed
21.Reynolds D. Prostate cancer screening in African American men: barriers and methods for improvement. Am J Mens Health. 2008; 2(2): 172–7. doi:10.1177/1557988307312784 .CrossRef PubMed
22.Millett G, Malebranche D, Mason B, Spikes P. Focusing “down low”: bisexual black men, HIV risk and heterosexual transmission. J Natl Med Assoc. 2005; 97(7 Suppl): 52S–9.PubMed PubMedCentral
23.Clarke-Tasker VA, Wutoh AK, Mohammed T. HIV risk behaviors in African American males. ABNF J. 2005;16(3):56–9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16092735 .
24.Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. The public health critical race methodology: praxis for antiracism research. Soc Sci Med. 2010; 71: 1390–8. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.030 .CrossRef PubMed
25.Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. Critical race theory, race equity, and public health: toward antiracism praxis. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100(3): 693–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.171058 .
26.Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. The public health critical race methodology: praxis for antiracism research. Soc Sci Med. 2010; 71: 1390–8. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.030 .CrossRef PubMed
27.Griffith DM. An intersectional approach to men’ s health. J Mens health. 2012; 9(2): 106–12. doi:10.1016/j.jomh.2012.03.003 .CrossRef
28.Ray R. Stalled desegregation and the myth of racial inequality in the U.S. labor market. DuBois Rev Soc Sci Res Race. 2014; 11(2): 477–87.CrossRef
29.Crenshaw K. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Rev. 1991; 43(6): 1241–99. doi:10.2307/1229039 .CrossRef
30.Goffman A. On the run: wanted men in a Philadelphia ghetto. Am Sociol Rev. 2009; 74(3): 339–57. doi:10.1177/000312240907400301 .CrossRef
31.Oliver MB. African American men as “criminal and dangerous”: implications of media portrayals of crime on the “criminalization” of African American men. J Afr Am Stud. 2003; 7(2): 3–18. doi:10.1007/s12111-003-1006-5 .CrossRef
32.Feagin JR, Sikes MP. How black students cope with racism on white campuses. J Blacks High Educ. 2015; 8(8): 91–7.
33.Anderson E. The white space. Sociol Race Ethn. 2015; 1(1): 10–21. doi:10.1177/2332649214561306 .
34.Ray R, Rosow JA. The Two different worlds of black and white fraternity men: visibility and accountability as mechanisms of privilege. J Contemp Ethnogr. 2012; 41(1): 66–94. doi:10.1177/0891241611431700 .CrossRef
35.Ray R. Fraternity life at predominately white universities in the U.S.: the saliency of race. Ethn Racial Stud. 2013; 36: 320–36.CrossRef
36.Alexander M. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York City: New Press; 2010.
37.Muhammad KG. The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 2011.
38.Harriott A. Presumed Criminality, Racial Profiling and Policing in America—with Special Reference to the Diallo Case. In: Jones-Brown D, Terry K, eds. Policing and Minority Communities: Bridging the Gap. Upper Saddle River: Pearson/Prentice Hall; 2004.
39.Ackermann N, Goodman MS, Gilbert KL, Arroyo-Johnson C, Pagano M. Race, law, and health: examination of “stand your ground” and defendant convictions in Florida. Soc Sci Med. 2015; 142: 194–201. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.012 .CrossRef PubMed
40.State of Missouri. Sate of Missouri v. Darren Wilson. Grand Jury(2014). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/1370518-grand-jury-volume-5.html .
41.Waytz A, Hoffman KM, Trawalter S. A superhumanization bias in whites’ perceptions of blacks. Soc Psychol Personal Sci. 2014; 6(3): 352–9. doi:10.1177/1948550614553642 .CrossRef
42.Hughey MW. Cinethetic racism: white redemption and black stereotypes in “magical negro” films. Soc Probl. 2009; 56(3): 543–77. doi:10.1525/sp.2009.56.3.543 .CrossRef
43.Trawalter S, Hoffman KM, Waytz A. Racial bias in perceptions of Others’ pain. PLoS One. 2012; 7(11): e48546. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048546 .CrossRef PubMed PubMedCentral
44.Goff PA, Jackson MC, Di Leone BAL, Culotta CM, DiTomasso NA. The essence of innocence: consequences of dehumanizing black children. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2014; 106(4): 526–45. doi:10.1037/a0035663 .CrossRef PubMed
45.CBS News. Black students more likely to be suspended - even in preschool. 2014. Available at: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/education-department-black-preschoolers-more-likely-to-be-suspended/ .
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47.Feagin JR. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition. Second. New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 2010.
48.McConnaughy CM, White IK. Racial politics complicated : the work of gendered race cues in American politics 1. In: New Research on Gender in Political Psychology Conference. 2008.
49.Trawalter S, Todd AR, Baird AA, Richeson JA. Attending to threat: race-based patterns of selective attention. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2008; 44(5): 1322–7. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.006 .CrossRef PubMed PubMedCentral
50.Correll J, Urland GR, Ito TA. Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: the role of threat perception and cognitive control. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2006; 42(1): 120–8. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.006 .CrossRef
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56.United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department. Washington, DC; 2015. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/ferguson_police_department_report.pdf .
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59.Hennigan G. Iowa City police to continue study that found racial disparity in traffic stops. The Gazette. http://thegazette.com/subject/news/iowa-city-police-to-continue-study-that-found-racial-disparity-in-traffic-stops-20140829 . Published 2014.
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作者单位：Keon L. Gilbert (1)
Rashawn Ray (2)

1. College for Public Health & Social Justice, Saint Louis University, Salus Center, 3545 Lafayette Avenue, St. Louis, MO, 63104, USA
2. University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
刊物主题：Public Health; Health Informatics; Epidemiology;
出版者：Springer US
ISSN：1468-2869

文摘

Widespread awareness of the recent deaths of several black males at the hands of police has revealed an unaddressed public health challenge—determining the root causes of excessive use of force by police applied to black males that may result in “justifiable homicides.” The criminalization of black males has a long history in the USA, which has resulted in an increase in policing behaviors by legal authorities and created inequitable life chances for black males. Currently, the discipline of public health has not applied an intersectional approach that investigates the intersection of race and gender to understanding police behaviors that lead to “justifiable homicides” for black males. This article applies the core tenets and processes of Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to develop a framework that can improve research and interventions to address the disparities observed in recent trend analyses of “justifiable homicides.” Accordingly, we use PHCRP to offer an alternative framework on the social, legal, and health implications of violence-related incidents. We aim to move the literature in this area forward to help scholars, policymakers, and activists build the capacity of communities to address the excessive use of force by police to reduce mortality rates from “justifiable homicides.”

Keywords Black men’s health Health inequalities Police brutality Critical race theory Public Health Critical Race Praxis Intersectionality #BlackLivesMatter Page %P Close Plain text Look Inside Reference tools Export citation EndNote (.ENW) JabRef (.BIB) Mendeley (.BIB) Papers (.RIS) Zotero (.RIS) BibTeX (.BIB) Add to Papers Other actions Register for Journal Updates About This Journal Reprints and Permissions Share Share this content on Facebook Share this content on Twitter Share this content on LinkedIn Related Content Supplementary Material (0) References (67) References1.Parks SE, Johnson LL, McDaniel DD, Gladden M. Surveillance for violent deaths—national violent death reporting system, 16 states, 2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014; 63(SS01): 1–33.2.Gabrielson R, Jones RG, Sagara E. Deadly Force, in Black and White: a ProPublica analysis of killings by police shows outsize risk for young black males. 2015. Available at: http://www.propublica.org/article/deadly-force-in-black-and-white?utm_source=et&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=dailynewsletter**#.3.Krieger N, Kiang MV, Chen JT, Waterman PD. Trends in US deaths due to legal intervention among black and white men, age 15–34 years, by county income level: 1960–2010. Harvard Public Heal Rev. 2015;3:1–5. Available at: http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/190/.4.National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2010: with special feature on death and dying. Hyattsville; 2011.5.Rich JA, Ro M. A poor Man’s Plight: Uncovering the Disparity in Men’s Health. MI: Battle Creek; 2002.6.Gilbert KL, R Ray, Siddiqi A, et al. Visible and Invisible Trends in African American men’s health: pitfalls and promises for addressing inequalities. Annu Rev Public Health. 2016;37.7.Gilbert KL, Ray R, Langston M. Social Dis(ease) of African American Males and Health. In: Yeakey CC, Thompson VLS, Wells A, eds. Urban Ills: Twenty-First Century Complexities of Urban Living in Global Contexts, vol. II. Lanham: Lexington Books; 2014: 23–36.8.Wolfers J, Leonhardt D, Quealy K. 1.5 Million missing black men. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/04/20/upshot/missing-black-men.html?_r=0&abt=0002&abg=0. Published April 2015.9.Pettit B. Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress. New York City: The Russell Sage Foundation; 2012.10.Pager D. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2007.CrossRef11.Goffman A. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2014.CrossRef12.Gilbert KL, Ray R, Langston M. Vicious Cycle of Unequal Treatment and Social Dis(ease) of African American Males and Health. In: Yeakey CC, Thompson VLS, Wells A, eds. Urban Ills: Twenty-First Century Complexities of Urban Living in Global Contexts, Volume Ii, vol. 2. 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J Behav Med. 1983; 6: 259–78. doi:10.1007/BF01315113.CrossRefPubMed19.Wagner L. Hypertension in African-American males. Clin Excell Nurse Pract. 1998; 2(4): 225–31.PubMed20.Jones RA, Underwood SM, Rivers BM. Reducing prostate cancer morbidity and mortality in African American men: issues and challenges. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2007; 11(6): 865–72. doi:10.1188/07.cjon.865-872.CrossRefPubMed21.Reynolds D. Prostate cancer screening in African American men: barriers and methods for improvement. Am J Mens Health. 2008; 2(2): 172–7. doi:10.1177/1557988307312784.CrossRefPubMed22.Millett G, Malebranche D, Mason B, Spikes P. Focusing “down low”: bisexual black men, HIV risk and heterosexual transmission. J Natl Med Assoc. 2005; 97(7 Suppl): 52S–9.PubMedPubMedCentral23.Clarke-Tasker VA, Wutoh AK, Mohammed T. HIV risk behaviors in African American males. ABNF J. 2005;16(3):56–9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16092735.24.Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. 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In: McClure S, Harris C, eds. In Getting Real About Race: Hoodies, Mascots, Model Minorities, and Other Conversations. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications; 2015: 81–93.47.Feagin JR. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition. Second. New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 2010.48.McConnaughy CM, White IK. Racial politics complicated : the work of gendered race cues in American politics 1. In: New Research on Gender in Political Psychology Conference. 2008.49.Trawalter S, Todd AR, Baird AA, Richeson JA. Attending to threat: race-based patterns of selective attention. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2008; 44(5): 1322–7. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.006.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral50.Correll J, Urland GR, Ito TA. Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: the role of threat perception and cognitive control. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2006; 42(1): 120–8. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.006.CrossRef51.Eberhardt JL, Goff PA, Purdie VJ, Davies PG. 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J Prev Interv Community. 2011; 39(1): 77–92. doi:10.1080/10852352.2011.530168.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral About this Article Title Why Police Kill Black Males with Impunity: Applying Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to Address the Determinants of Policing Behaviors and “Justifiable” Homicides in the USA Journal Journal of Urban Health Volume 93, Issue 1 Supplement, pp 122-140 Cover Date2016-04 DOI 10.1007/s11524-015-0005-x Print ISSN 1099-3460 Online ISSN 1468-2869 Publisher Springer US Additional Links Register for Journal Updates Editorial Board About This Journal Manuscript Submission Topics Public Health Health Informatics Epidemiology Keywords Black men’s health Health inequalities Police brutality Critical race theory Public Health Critical Race Praxis Intersectionality #BlackLivesMatter Authors Keon L. Gilbert (1) Rashawn Ray (2) Author Affiliations 1. College for Public Health & Social Justice, Saint Louis University, Salus Center, 3545 Lafayette Avenue, St. Louis, MO, 63104, USA 2. University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Continue reading... To view the rest of this content please follow the download PDF link above.

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