摘要
本文对在西藏自治区后藏地区的达丹彭措林寺开展的一个大型合作项目进行了回顾,以16、17世纪的大学者贡嘎宁波——他更以多罗那他(1575-1634年)之名而闻名——关于释迦牟尼佛佛传故事的记载为基础,对该寺的佛传故事壁画进行了探讨。本文的主要内容包括:一、多罗那他关于佛陀的文献记载;二、与文献记载相关的佛传故事壁画;三、文本与图像之间的复杂关系,有一处多罗那他书写的壁画题记为这种关系提供了佐证;四、文本和图像产生时寺院的情况。通过这样的分析,我们注意到多介质的释迦牟尼佛的形象在该寺大量出现,对于多罗那他新寺主身份的认定具有重要作用。在西藏,彭措林寺或许比大多数的寺院更加强调释迦牟尼佛的独特视觉形象。多罗那他对于释迦牟尼佛的重视构成了寺院的核心组织原则,或可被认为是"佛陀项目":由多罗那他大量的作品、宗教艺术品以及随之产生的宗教实践构成的一个整体的文化项目。我们认为,正是这种文化项目某种程度上巩固了彭措林寺的寺院身份认定。
This essay presents a preliminary overview of a larger collaborative project on the narratives of Sakyamuni Buddha's life based on materials produced by the sixteenth/seventeenth-century polymath Kun dga' snying po,better known as Taranatha(1575-1634),at Rtag brtan Phun tshogs gling Monastery in the Gtsang region of the Tibetan Autonomous Region.In this essay we introduce(1)Taranatha's literary works on the Buddha,(2) the mural of the Buddha's life associated with that literature,(3) the complex relationship between text and image,a relationship that is mediated by a painting manual(bris yig) written by Taranatha,and(4) the institutional context in which texts and images were produced.In doing so we hope to demonstrate that an extensively realized portrayal of Sakyamuni Buddha in multiple media was of central importance to the identity of Taranatha's new monastic seat.Phun tshogs gling was,perhaps more than most monasteries in Tibet,branded with a distinctive vision of Sakyamuni.Taranatha's emphasis on Sakyamuni as a central organizing principle formed what might be considered a "Buddha Program" :a total cultural program consisting of a large body of Taranatha's writings and religious artwork,as well as attendant practices.It was,in part we suggest,this Buddha Program that consolidated Phun tshogs gling's institutional identity.
引文
Dge ba'i dbang po(Ksemendra)Byang chub sems dpa'i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi'khri shing.Sde dge Bstan'gyur,Mdo'grel(Ke),fols.1-366.Ui 1934,no.4155.
Ngag dbang blo gros grags pa(1920-1975)Dpal ldan jo nang pa'i chos'byung rgyal ba'i chos tshul gsal byed zla ba'i sgron me.Beijing:Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang,1992.
Chos kyi rgya mtsho,Kah thog Si tu(1880-1923/1925)Si tu pa chos kyi rgya mtsho'i gangs ljongs dbus gtsang gnas bskor lam yig nor bu zla shel gyi se mo do.Sichuan:Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang,2001.
Dol po pa Shes rab rgyal mtshan(1292-1361)Zhu don gnang ba.In Gsung'bum.10 vols.New Delhi:Shedrup Books,1992.Vol.5[Series vol.7]:343-46.
Sna nam btsun pa Bskal bzang chos kyi rgya mtsho(late 15th century)Mchog gi gter.Sangs rgyas bcom ldan'das kyi rnam par thar pa rmad du byung ba mdzad pa'khrul med par brjod pa bde bar gshegs pa'i spyod pa mchog gi gter.Zi ling[Xining]:Mtsho sngon mi rigs dpe skrun khang,1994.
Taranatha(1575-1634)
——Dkon mchog gsum.Dkon mchog gsum rjes su dran pa'i mdo don cung zad bshad pa.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:24[Mes po'i shul bzhag 76],286-310.——Rgyal ba'i sku gzugs.Rgyal ba'i sku gzugs kyi cha tshad bstan pa bde skyid'byung gnas.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:26[Mes po'i shul bzhag 78],499-532.——Bcom ldan'das.Bcom ldan'das thub pa'i dbang po la bstod pa.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:32[Mes po'i shul bzhag 74],1-7.——Dad pa'i nyin byed.Bcom ldan'das thub pa'i dbang po'i mdzad pa mdo tsam brjod pa mthong bas don ldan rab tu dga'ba dang bcaspas dad pa'i nyin byed phyogs brgyar'char ba.[See Taranatha 2003 for a complete translation into French].Editions——Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:32[Mes po'i shul bzhag 74],128-477.——New Delhi:Ngawang Gelek Demo,1971:1-384[192 folios].Blockprint:no place,no date.——Leh:C.Namgyal&Tsewang Taru,1982-1987.Gsung'bum 12:13-344[166folios].Blockprint:Rtag brtan phun tshogs gling.——'Dzam thang dgon:[s.n.],199-.Gsung'bum 16:15-341[164 folios].Blockpring:'Dzam thang dgon.——Bir,H.P.:Zogyam and Pema Lodoe,1977:105-488[192 folios].Dbu can from the library of Tokden Rinpoche of Ladakh.——Gnas bshad.Dga'ldan phun tshogs gling gi gnas bshad.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:34[Mes po'i shul bzhag 76],128-477.——Rang rnam.Rgyal khamspa ta ra na thas bdag nyis kyi rnam thar ngespar brjod pa'i deb gter shin tu zhib mo ma bcos lhug pa'i rtogs brjod.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:1-2[Mes po'i shul bzhag 43-44].——Ye shes rgya mtsho.Ye shes rgya mtsho'i sgrub thabs rin chen'byung gnas.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:29-31[Mes po'i shul bzhag71-73],128-477.See also New Delhi:Chophel Legdan,1974:1,which includes a useful table of contents.——Sangs rgyas rjes dran.Sangs rgyas rjes dran dang bla ma'i rnal'byor gyi man ngag zung du'jug pa.Pe cin[Beijing]:Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang,2008:2[Mes po'i shul bzhag 44],291-296.
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1 Ngag dbang blo gros grags pa,Dpal ldan jo nangpa'i chos'byung,57.Cf.Zongtse 1977,27.
2 Das 1902:209.
3 Hedin 1910,1:416.
4 See,for example:Schlingoff 2000;Whitfield 1990;Whitfield et.al.2000;Fraser 2004;Ning 2004.
5 Notable examples include,but are certainly not limited to Vitali 1990;Klimburg-Salter and Luczanits 1998;Ricca and Lo Bue 1993;Goepper,Lutterbeck,and Poncar 1984;and of course Tucci 1949.
6 Known editions are listed in the bibliography.Page numbers to Taranatha's works,including the Dad pa'i nyin byed,below refer to the 2008 comparative(dpe bsdur ma)edition published by Dpal brtsegs unless otherwise noted.
7 Kongtrul 2010:89.
8 Zongtse 1977:351.
9 Taranatha,Rang mam,smad cha,103.Yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyi rnam thar'dul ba lunggtso bor gyurpa'i'khor lo dang po las btus pa/rgyas bsdus'tshampa'di yang dbyar thog de la sgrigs pa yin/'jug phran tshogs cig lo'di'i dgun ka bris/.
10 See A khu ching Shes rab rgya mtsho's(1803-1875)list of rare texts,where it is referenced as Ta ra na tha'i ston pa'i rnam thar mdzad brgyar grags pa(Chandra 1963,638).It is worth noting another extended account of Sakyamuni Buddha's life that predates Taranatha's version.This is the work by Sna nam btsun pa Skal bzang chos kyi rgya mtsho(ca.late 15th century)written in 1494 at the request of Chag Lo tsa ba Rin chen chos rgyal(b.1447).The work is called The Supreme Treasury:The Excellent Life of the Lord Buddha,[Being]the Conduct of the One Gone to Bliss Described in terms of[His]Inerrant Acts(Sangs rgyas bcom ldan'das kyi rnam par thar pa rmad du byung ba mdzad pa"khrul med par brjod pa bde bar gshegs pa'i spyod pa mchog gi gter).Although in some ways comparable to The Sun of Faith,Sna nam btsun pa claims to draw on a much broader range of source materials than Taranatha.See Sna nam btsun pa,Mchog gi gter.
11 See Tenzin Ch(o|¨)gyel 2015,Kongtrul 2010:75-91,etc.
12 Taranatha,Dadpa'i nyin byed,335.
13 Ui,Hakuji,et.al.A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons,Sendai:Tohoku Imperial University,1934,no.340,hereafter"D340",etc.
14 These sources are repeated in the Descriptive Guide to Phun tshogs gling.See Taranatha,Gnas bshad,176.
15 Kongtrul2010:89.
16 Rawling 1905:193-4.
17 Tucci 1949:196-200.
18 Tucci 1949:198.
19 Henss 2014:695-704.
20 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,esp.l66ff.Cf.Zongtse 1977:27-35.
21 Zongtse 1977:29.
22 Zongtse 1977:29-30.
23 Zongtse 1977:30;Taranatha,Rang rnam,34.Cf.Jackson 1996,186 and 194 n 447.
24 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,175-6:steng khang bkod pa mtha'yas zhes bya ba di no/'o skol gyi ston pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyi mam thar shin tu ngo mtshar ba/mngon par'byung ba'i mdo dang/'dul ba lung dang/las brgya pa dang/rtogs brjod brgya pa sogs las bsdus pa'i bkod pa bzhugs/ces brjod nas lo rgyus dang bstun ci rigs ci rigs'di dang'di'o zhes bshad do//.
25 Zongtse 1977,54:'dus khang chen mo'i yang steng bkod pa mtha'yas zhes bya ba'i sdebs zhal khor yug gi bris char'o skol gyi ston pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyi rnam tharngo mtshar mngon par'byung ba'i mdo dang/dam chos'dul ba lung dang/las brgya pa dang/rtogs brjodbrgyapa sogs las bsdus pa'i bkod pa/.This line is an unacknowledged quote from Taranatha,Gnas bshad,175-6.
26 Tucci 1949:198.
27 Robert Linrothe has identified this technique as hang tson,"lightly filled-in color"or"light wash",as opposed to dzong tson or"fully filled-in color."Linrothe,personal communication,4/16/2016.See also Linrothe 2016 and forthcoming,as well as Jackson 1996:59.
28 Chos kyi rgya mtsho,Kah thog 2001:436:phyi ngos mdzad brgya bris pa yul bkod nyams mtshar ba trag shad mgon khang bcas/.
29 TSranatha,Bris yig,501:de ltar na ston pa'i mam thar bris yig'di ni/sa la spyod pa'i dbang phyug phun tshogs mam par rgyal ba'igsunggi bskul nas/kun dga'snying pos pho brang chen por nges bar brjod pa'o/.
30 Taranatha,Dad pa'i snyin byed,335-338.Cf.Taranatha 2003:298-308.
31 See Vinayavastu('Da/bagzhi),Sde dge bstan'gyur D1,vol.Ga,fol.225a.3-229a.4.
32 See Chapter 7,Dge ba'i dbang po(Ksemendra),Byang chub sems dpa'i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi'khri shing(Ui 1934,no.4155):fol.70b.5-79b.2.Tucci 1949:449;Kshemendra 2001:59.
33 Personal communication,Robert Linrothe,4/16/2016,
34 Taranatha,Bcom ldem'das.
35 Taranatha,Rgyal ba'i sku gzugs.
36 Taranatha,Sangs rgyas rjes dran.
37 Taranatha,Dkon mchog gsum.
38 Taranatha,Ye shes rgya mtsho,29:79-126.
39 Taranatha,Ye shes rgya mtsho,30:147-150.
40 Taranatha,Ye shes rgya mtsho,31:312.
41 Taranatha,Rang rnam,smad cha,89.Snga sor zhabs drung gong ma da'i dgongs brtad du'dug pa nged kyis bris yig kyang byas/yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyi rnam thar zhing bkod rgyas pal thang ka drug cu skor yod pa yang skabs der grub song/.
42 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,174;Zongtse 1977,52."On the faces thirty four pillars(which are all but the two great pillars),are arranged[murals]of the acts of the thirty-four rebirths of the Bodhisattva according to the text composed by Master[Arya]sura.Additionally,between each surra scene are depictions of the sixteen arhats and the authoritative dharma kings who went to Shambhala.Ka ring gnyis ma gtogs pa'i ka ba sum cu so bzhi'i zhu'i ngos la/byang chub sems dpa'i'khrungs rabs so bzhi slob dpon dpa'bos mdzad pa'i gzhud dang mthun par bkod/yang mdo bkod kyi bar bar na bzhugs pa'di mams/'phags pa'i gnas brtan chen po bcu drug dang/opal Idan sham bha lar byon pa'i chos rgyal rigs loan mams kyi sku bmyanyin lags/.The scenes on the pillars no longer remain.
43 Zongtse 1977:30.
44 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,174:nges don mdo nyi shu zhes grags pa'i gleng gzhi so so'i mdo bkod dang/dus kyi'khor lo rtsa ba'i rgyud dang/Jam opal rtsa rgyud gsungs tshul dang/'gzhan yang ston pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas nyid kyi mdzadpa'i rnam grangs ni rigs pa dang bcas pa spel nas bkod pay in pa'dug.Cf.Zengtse 1977:52.
45 Yan Xue(2014)has also examined these murals.It appears she was able to view some inscriptions that were inaccessible or illegible to us.The authors would like to thank Hillary Yao for her assistance Yan Xue's work.
46 Stearns 2010:12,316n28.See,for example,Dol po pa's Zhu don gnang ba(appended to the Slob ma la spring ba skur'debs sgro'dogs spang ba),which sets forth his lists of the sutras of definitive meaning and the tathagatagarbha sutras.
47 See Brunnholzl 2015,note 20 for an extended discussion of this work.
48 On the tradition of extrinsic emptiness,see for example Hopkins 2006 and 2007,Sheehy 2007,and Stearns 2010.
49 Dolpopa,Zhudongnangba.Cf.Stearns 2010:316n29.
50 These lists were commented upon and amended by later Tibetan writers,See Brunnholzl 2015:4-12,for lists according to other traditions.
51 The Descriptive Guide(173-4)lists the following murals:(1)5-deity Kalacakra;(2)Dark Cakrasamvara in the tradition of Zhabs together with the 4 yoginis;(3)Vajravega;(4)Vajrabhairava;(5)Guhyasamaja-Manjuvajra;(6)Vajrayogini;(7)the Great Omniscient One[Dol po pa];(8)Panjara Mahakala yama-yami;and(9)Vaisravana;as well as an image of Taranatha as a"practitioner of the six buddha families"(rgyal ba rigs drug sgrub pa po'i tshul du rje btsun nyid kyi sku'dra).
52 TDates are after Zongtse 1977:30-31.Cf.Taranatha,Rang rnam,64.
53 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,170.
54 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,169-70.
55 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,169.
56 See Quintman forthcoming.
57 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,177-8;Zongtse 42.
58 Taranatha,Gnas bshad,177.