摘要
上个世纪80年代,美国兴起“基于课程标准的教育改革”；90年代末,我国兴起第八次课程改革,其本质也是基于标准的课改。“基于标准的教育改革”的内涵是标准、教学和评估三者的一致。它是一个系统化的改革,需要教育系统内诸多要素的协调变革才能收到良好的教育效果。课程标准是课程设计、教科书编写、教学及学业测验的基础和指南针,高质量的课程标准至关重要。基于标准的学业评价的作用也不容小觑,它可以推动课程的改革。因为学业评价对教育过程起着导向、激励和促进与诊断的作用。大规模学业评价的导向作用尤为突出。中美两国基于标准的大规模数学学业评价系统的命题质量都存在一些,研究数学命题的理论、技术以及实践问题有重大的意义。美国的教育测量技术处于世界领先的地位,对中美两国的命题进行比较研究有助于两国在相关问题上相互借鉴和相互学习。
美国基于标准的大规模数学学业评价的命题大多遵循以下流程：制定测验规范和试题规范→选拔以及培训命题者→命题→试题审核→预测试→试测→试题分析→分析考试与课标的一致性。本论文按这样的逻辑结构进行组织,先探讨命题流程各环节的测量理论与技术,再对中美两国的实践层面进行比较。在选取中美两国个案进行比较的时候,美国方面主要选取基于共同核心州立标准的试题开发为例,由于该评估将于2014-2015学年年正式实施,某些环节尚未启动,兼取个别州的试题开发为例,作为有益而必要的补充,毕竟这些评估系统的试题开发遵循的测量理论有很多共通之处。中国方面,选取几个省市的中考和高中学业水平考试为例,其中S省和上海市的教育质量在我国处于领先位置。
本文的第一章概述研究背景与研究基础。
第二章探讨数学标准的制定与修订、内容及质量。研究基于标准的大规模数学学业评价的命题,如果标准的质量不高,即便命题技术再先进也不能对教育起很好的效果。于是,本文第二章探讨课标的制定与修订的流程与原则,课标的质量由此可以管窥一斑。然而,规范的流程与合理的原则不能完全保证课标是高质量的,所以要根据一定的质量要求对课标的质量进行评判。
本文第三章探讨制定内容规范、测验规范和试题规范。考虑到对于共同核心州立标准的评估,先制定内容规范,将其作为制定测验规范和试题规范的指导性文件,所以第三章第一节探讨内容规范。
第四章探讨命题者的选拔与培训、命题专家的知识结构和认知过程。了解命题专家的知识结构和认知过程,有助于选拔和培训命题者。
第五章研究各种题型的试题分类、优缺点及其编制。
第六章研究试题审核、预测试、试测、试题分析。即便是命题专家,也难确保命题的质量一定是高的,并且专家也难免有错漏之处。另外,命题专家受个人经验所限,未能反映考生群体的文化多样性,凡此种种原因都需要审核试题。然而试题审核员一般也是有教育经验的工作组,考生做题的认知活动究竟是怎么样的,试题审核员也只能是凭经验和猜测做出判断,因此有必要选取有代表性的考生样本(通常是十多二十个)进行预测试。之后,美国方面的试题还要进行规模较大的试测,常常采取试测试题嵌入实测试题的方法。试测之后还要进行试题分析。
本文第七章研究考试与课标的一致性。研究表明,考试、教学和课标的一致性程度越高,学生的学业成就就越高。因此有必要研究考试与课标的一致性的计算方法。
The United States witnessed the standards-based educational reform in the1980s and China experienced the eighth curriculum reform in the late nineties, which was based on the standards-based educational reform in essence. The nature of the standards-based educational reform is the coherence of standard, instruction and assessment. It is a systemic reform and it needs the coordination and changes of all the elements in the education system so that it has a beneficial effect on education. As curriculum standard is the basement and instruction of curriculum design, textbook compiling and the achievement assessment, curriculum standard of high quality is of the utmost importance. Standards-based achievement assessment also plays an important role and it can promote the curriculum reform, for it guides, stimulates, promotes and diagnoses the education process. The guiding effect of achievement assessment in large scale is particularly prominent. Item development in Standards-based and large-scale mathematics achievement assessment system either in China or in America appears some problems. Therefore, the research of the theory, technology and practical problems of item development for mathematics remains significant. The technology of educational assessment in the USA is the most advanced in the world, so the comparative studies of item development in China and America contribute to the reference and learning each other.
Item development of standards-based and large-scale mathematics achievement assessment mostly follows the following sequence:to formulate test specification and item specification→to select and train item developer→item developing→item reviewing→pilot testing→field testing→item analyzing→to analyze the alignment between test and curriculum standard. This paper is organized according to this logical organization. First, the author states the testing theories and technology of item developing. Then the paper goes on to the comparison of the practice between in China and in America. When making a case comparison between the two countries, this paper mainly takes test development based on common core state standards in America as an example. As this assessment will be carried out in the academic year of2014-2015and some sections of the assessment still do not begin, the author gives an illustration of test development for the time being in some states as the beneficial supplement. After all, the test theories on which the test development is based have a lot in common. The paper also takes junior high school academic proficiency exam and high school academic proficiency exam in some provinces in China as an example, among which, S province and Shanghai city's education quality maintain the leading position.
The first Chapter presents the research background and the research foundation in general.
The second Chapter discusses the procedure, amendment, content and quality of mathematics standard. When we study the item development of standards-based and large-scale mathematics achievement assessment, we find that even the most advanced item technology cannot have a satisfying effect on education. Therefore, the second chapter puts emphasis on discussing the processes and the principles of the formulation and amendment of curriculum standard. However, the normative procedures and reasonable principles cannot ensure the high quality of curriculum standard. As a result, we should judge the quality of curriculum standard according to some quality requirement.
The third Chapter discusses the formulation of content specification, test specification and item specification. According to the assessment of common core state standards, it draws up the content specification first which will be taken as the instructional documents of test specification and item specification. So in the first part in the third chapter, the paper states the content specification.
The fourth Chapter presents the selection and the training of item developer and discusses the knowledge structures and the cognitive processes of item writing experts for to know well about the knowledge structures and a cognitive model of item-writing expertise is helpful to select and train item developer.
The fifth Chapter presents the classification and construction of items, as well as the advantages and the disadvantages.
The sixth Chapter discusses the item review, pilot test, field test of items and item analysis. Even the expertise item writers cannot guarantee the high quality of the items they wrote, since human make mistakes inevitably. Moreover, they can not reflect the diversity of culture because of the limitation of their personal experience. All in all, it is necessary of reviewing the items. Although the item reviewers tend to have rich teaching experience, they have no idea of what the cognitive processes of the test takers really is, and they just have to base their judgment on their experience and speculation. As a result, test developers should pilot-test the items on the representative samples, usually made of ten-twenty test takers. And then, it is more often than that the items needs to be field tested on large scale, and embedded field testing is generally preferred. The data gathered in field testing are used to conduct item analysis.
The seventh Chapter discusses the alignment between the assessments and the curriculum standards. Researches indicated that the higher alignment index among the assessments, instruction and curriculum standards, the higher achievement of the students. Accordingly, it is urgent to develop a model to calculate the alignment index.
引文
1王斌华,学生评价：夯实双基与培养能力[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：89-91
2曹洪,“不让一个孩子掉队”法案之回顾与启示,《外国中小学教育》[J].2008(2)：60.
3占盛丽,文剑冰,朱小虎.全球化背景下PISA在美国基础教育质量评估体系中的贡献——基于美国PISA与NEAP的比较,《外国中小学教育》[J].2010(5)：2
4 U.S. Department of Education. Race to the Top Program Executive Sumary [EB/OL].http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf.2011-9-10.
5 The state of the state standards— and the common core in 2010[EB/OL].http://www.edexcellencemedia.net/publications/2010/201007_state education standards common standards/PressRelease.pdf,2011-5-28.
6孔企平,《全日制义务教育数学课程标准评析》全球教育展望[J].2006(9)：45
7教育部就印发义务教育课程标准(2011)答记者问,[EB/OL],http://www.edu.cn/_jiao_news 279/20120207/t20120207_737882.shtml.2011-12-28.
8教育部相关负责人解读：义务教育“新课标”新在哪。[EB/OL]http://www.edu.cn/xin_wen_dong_tai_890/20120208/t20120208_738037.shtml.2012-2-13.
吴清山等著,教育绩效责任研究[M].北京：九州出版社,2006：28
10全美数学教师理事会著,蔡金法等译,美国学校数学教育的原则和标准[M].人民教育出版社,2004：10,204.
11 ETS, Transforming K-12 Assessment: Integrating Accountability Testing, Formative Assessment, and Professional Support.[EB/OL]http://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.ets.org/Media/Home/pdf/CBAL TransformingK12Assessment.pdf&sa=U&ei=HBRvT9SwBOKiiAfz8uiCBg&ved=0CBIQFjAA&usg=AFQjCN H_adeTdOVNlckOQdWyMjZrF9EglA.2011-7-24.
12 Shepard, L. A.,The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 2000(7),4-14.
13李欣,《中美高中学业水平考试的多维比较研究》[D].华东师范大学博士学位论文,2011：242-246.
14徐登科、王定华,美国中小学的州级统考[J].基础教育参考,2003(7)：5
15 ETS. Come Together to Raise Achievement, New Assessment for the Common Core State Standards[EB/OL].www.kl2center.org/rsc/pdf/Assessments_for_the_Common_Core_Standards.pdf.2011-7-5.
16 Howard Wainer,& Neil J. Dorans.Computer adaptive testing: A primer [M]. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum. 2000:10
17 ETS, Pearson, & College Board. Some Considerations Related to the Use of Adaptive Testing for the Common Core Assessments[EB/OL]. http://www.google.com/url?q=http://professionals.collegeboard.com/profdownload/some-considerations-use-of-ad aptive-testing.pdf&sa=U&ei=6hRvT8P A4SSiAfFxJySBg&ved=0CBEQFjAA&usg=AFQjCNGmOikkVkkulsBT AdIYDdtxza41WQ.2011-8-16.
18约瑟夫·M·瑞安(美),基于经典测量理论和项目反应理论的等值与连接——主要概念和基本术语,《考试研究》[J].2011(1)：83.
19 ETS. Come Together to Raise Achievement, New Assessment for the Common Core State Standards[EB/OL].www.kl2center.org/rsc/pdf/Assessments_for_the_Common_Core_Standards.pdf.2011-7-5.
20王井影,中考与高考中的数学开放题研究[D].东北师范大学硕士论文,2010：17.
21马海琳,中考数学命题改革及其对教学的影响[D]。东北师范大学硕士学位论文：22
22教育部,教育部关于印发义务教育语文等学科,课程标准(2011年版)的通知,[EB/OL]http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_711/201201/xxgk_129268.html.2012-2-1 7.
23雷新勇,大规模教育考试：命题与评价[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2006：15
24余民宁,《教育测验与评量——成就测验与教学评量》[M].台北：心理出版社,2002：35.
25雷新勇,《基于标准的教育考生——命题、标准设置和学业评价》[M].上海：上海科学技术出版社,2010：1-2.
26李欣,《中美高中学业水平考试的多维比较研究》[D].华东师范大学博士学位论文,2011：102.
27 Marianne Perie, Scott Marion, Brian Gong, The role of interim assessment in a Comprehensive Assessment System:A Policy Brief[EB/OL]. http://www.achieve.org/files/TheRoleofInterim%20Assessments12-13-07.pdf, 2011-8-26
28王斌华,学生评价：夯实双基与培养能力[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：75.
29余民宁,教育测验与评量——成就测验与教学评量[M].台北：心理出版社,2002：457.
30 Fitzpatrick, R., & Morrison, E.J. Performance and Product Evaluation. In R. L. Thorndike & W. H. Angoff (Eds.). Educational Measurement (2nd edition.)[M].1971:268
31 Pearson. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OLl.http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-41BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/St rategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeItemsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf.2011-10.2.
32 Stephen G.Sireci,& April L.Zenisky. Innovative Item Formats Computer-Based Testing:In Pursuit of Improved Construct Representation. Downing, S.M., Haladyna, T.M. (Eds.),Handbook of Test Development[M] New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.2006,329.
33W·詹姆斯·波帕姆著,促进教师发展与学生成长的评价研究项目组译,促进教学的课堂评价[M].北京：中国轻工业出版,2003：26
34W·詹姆斯·波帕姆著,促进教师发展与学生成长的评价研究项目组译,促进教学的课堂评价[M].北京：中国轻工业出版,2003：43
35美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译,教育与心理测试标准[M].沈阳：沈阳出版社,2003：13.
36美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译,教育与心理测试标准[M].沈阳：沈阳出版社,2003：13.
37迈克尔·罗德里格兹,安东尼·阿尔巴诺,托马斯·哈拉代拿(美),王丽华译,《面向测试开发者、研究者和教师的试题编写技术》[J].考试研究,2011(27)4：90.
38 Sammuel Messick, Validy, Educational Measurement (2th edition)[M]. Edited by Robert L. Linn, New York: American Council on Education,1989:34.
39李欣,《中美高中学业水平考试的多维比较研究》[D].华东师范大学博士学位论文,2011
40注：本文不研究基础教育质量监测。考虑到关于NAPE的研究已经有几十年的历史,国内外有关它的评估开发和命题的研究亦非罕见,另外中国基础教育质量监测方面的资料难以收集,故不对中美基础教育质量监测的命题进行比较研究。
41甘肃省中考命题、阅卷与试卷质量评价工作基本规范(试行),[EB/OL]http://www.qyedu.net/manage/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=1039.2012-3-5.
42 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
43杨向东,课程标准的开发与基于标准的学业水平考试的设计：美国的经验与启示,考试研究[J].2010(1)：114.
44杨向东,课程标准的开发与基于标准的学业水平考试的设计：美国的经验与启示,考试研究[J].2010(1)：114.
45吕立杰,《国家课程设计过程研究——以我国基础教育“新课程”设计为个案》,教育科学出版社[M]2008：156.
46吕立杰,国家课程设计过程研究——以我国基础教育“新课程”设计为个案,教育科学出版社[M]2008：150、151.
47吕立杰,国家课程设计过程研究——以我国基础教育“新课程”设计为个案,教育科学出版社[M]2008：151.
48吕立杰,国家课程设计过程研究——以我国基础教育“新课程”设计为个案,教育科学出版社[M]2008：153.
49周琴,杨登苗,为升学和就业做准备：美国“共同核心州立标准”述评,比较教育研究[J].2010(12)：14
50 Karin Hess, Valerie Kurizaki & Linda Holt, Reflections on tools and strategies used in the Hawai'I progress maps project:lessons learned from learning progressions [EB/OL].http://www.nciea.org/publications/Hawaii%20Lessons%20Learned_KH09.pdf.2012-1-2.
51 Karin Hess, Valerie Kurizaki & Linda Holt, Reflections on tools and strategies used in the Hawai'I progress maps project:lessons learned from learning progressions [EB/OL].http://www.nciea.org/publications/Hawaii%20Lessons%20Learned_KH09.pdf.2012-1-2.
52杨向东,张蕾,课程标准的开发与基于标准的学业水平考试的设计：美国的经验与启示[J].考试研究,2010(1)：114-115.
53 Gale H.Roid, Thomas M.Haladyna, A Technology for Test-Item Writing[M] Orlando,Florida:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,Acadamic Press,1982:162.
54L·W·安德森等编著,皮连生主译,《学习、教学和评估的分类学》(布鲁姆教育目标分类学修订版)[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2007：59-60.
55 Understanding the K-12 Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects[EB/OL]. http://www.achieve.org/files/AchievingCCSS-ELAFINAL.pdf.2011-9-29.
56 Sheila Byrd Carmichael, Gabrielle Martino, Kathleen Porter-Magee, & W. Stephen Wilson.The State of the State Standards and the Common Core in 2010 [EB/OL]. http://www.ctmirror.org/sites/default/files/documents/SOSSandCC2010_FullReportUpdated.pdf.2011-11-27.
57 Sheila Byrd Carmichael, Gabrielle Martino, Kathleen Porter-Magee, & W. Stephen Wilson.The State of the State Standards and the Common Core in 2010 [EB/OL]. http://www.ctmirror.org/sites/default/files/documents/SOSSandCC2010_FullReportUpdated.pdf.2011-11-27.
58 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
59 Gary D.Borich & Martin L.Tombari著,促进教师发展与学生成长的评价研究项目组译.中小学教育评价,(Educational Assessment for the Elementary and Middle School Classroom(2ed))[M]北京：中国轻工业出版社,2003：2
60 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, REVIEW DRAFT Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
61 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, REVIEW DRAFT Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
62 Webb, N. L. Alignment study in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies of state standards and assessments for four states. Washington, DC:CCSSO,2002:5-6.
63 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematicsi Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
64 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, REVIEW DRAFT Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011[EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
652012年北京中考数学考试说明,[EB/OL].http://wenku.baidu.com/view/cb2ee43f580216fc700afdb1.html.2012-3-17.
66美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译.教育与心理测试标准[M].沈阳：沈阳出版社,2003：P70.
67美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译.教育与心理测试标准[M].沈阳：沈阳出版社,2003：P70.
68孙俊,中考命题工作交流材料,[EB/OL].http://wenku.baidu.com/view/5a4afb6fb84ae45c3b358c5b.html.2012-2-19.
69大连市西岗区教育网,09年大连市中考数学双向细目表与试题,[EB/OL].http://www.xgedu.cn/news/2010331/n568613274.html.2012-3-21.
70 Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL].http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MTr3g.pdf.2011-12-16.
71 Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL].http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MWTr3g.pdf.2011-9-29.
72 Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL].http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MWTr3g.pdf.2011-9-29.
73 Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL].http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MWTr3g.pdf.2011-9-29.
74 Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL].http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MWTr3g.pdf.2011-9-29.
75 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft, Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19.
76 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft, Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19.
77 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft, Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011[EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19.
78赵守文,关于构建促进学生与教师共同发展的数学教学评价体系的思考(五)——中考命题人员的招聘、评价及考核是交给教师跨入中考命题工作的一把钥匙(上),黑龙江教育[J],2005(11)：4—6。
79 American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). (1999).The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, Washington, DC.
80注：加州高中毕业考试是委托ETS开发的。
81 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations [EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
82赵守文,关于构建促进学生与教师共同发展的数学教学评价体系的思考(五)——中考命题人员的招聘、评价及考核是交给教师跨入中考命题工作的一把钥匙(上),黑龙江教育[J],2005(11)：4-6。
83李小七,为你揭秘黄冈中考命题全过程[EB/OL],http://www.hgdaily.com/Html/dpsp/20091228123.html.2012-3-19.
84孔凡哲,命题技术：中考改革亟待突破的瓶颈,教育测量与评价[J].2012(2)：1.
85孔凡哲,命题技术：中考改革亟待突破的瓶颈,教育测量与评价[J].2012(2)：1.
86 Haladyna, T.M., & Downing, S.M. (). A taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing rules. Applied Measurement in Education[J].1989(1):37-50.
87 Hoepfl, M.C. Developing and evaluating multiple-choice tests. Technology Teacher[J].1994(7):25-26.
88 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans. Louisiana:2011.
89 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
90 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
91 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures.Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
92 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
93 Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
94 Thomas M. Haladyna, Steven M. Downing, Michael C. Rodriguez, A Review of Multiple-Choice Item-Writing Guidelines for Classroom Assessment, APPLIED MEASUREMENT IN EDUCATION,15(3),312
95 Thomas M. Haladyna, Developing and Validating Multiple-Choice Test Items[M].New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1994:112.
96 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
97 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-1
98迈克尔·罗德里格兹,安东尼·阿尔巴诺,托马斯·哈拉代拿(美),王丽华译,《面向测试开发者、研究者和教师的试题编写技术》[J].考试研究,2011(27)4：89.
99王井影,中考与高考中的数学开放题研究[D].东北师范大学硕士论文,2010：8
100王井影,中考与高考中的数学开放题研究[D].东北师范大学硕士论文,2010：8-9.
101 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
102 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
103 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k 12. wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
104 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
105谢圣英,沈文选透视数学表现性评价,数学教育学报[J].2006(2)：22
106余民宁,《教育测验与评量——成就测验与教学评量》,台北：心理出版社,2002：463-469
107谢圣英,沈文选透视数学表现性评价,数学教育学报[J].2006(2)：22
108 SB AC, SBAC Performance Task Specifications[EB/OL]. http://www.smarterbalanced.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/DRAFTMathItemSpecsShowcase2.pdf.2 012-2-27.
109 Cynthia B. Schmeiser & Catherin J. Welch, Performance Assessment, Educational Measurement(4th Edition)[M].Edited by Robert L. Brennan. Michgan:Praeger Publishers,2006:390.
110 S. Lane,The Conceptual Framework for the Development of Mathematics Performance Assessment, Educational Measurement:issues and Pratices,1993, (2):23
111 Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. Review Draft. Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.k12.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.2012-1-19
Cynthia G. Parshall, J. Christine Harmes, Tim Davey, and Peter J. Pashley, Innovative Items for Computerized Testing, Edited by W.J. van der Linden and C.A.W. Glas, Elements of Adaptive Testing, Statistics[M], for Social and Behavioral Sciences, DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-85461-811,_c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
113 Taylor,C., Jamieson,J., Eignor,D.,& Kirsch,I. The Relationship between Computer Familiarity and Performance on Computer-based TOEFL test tasks.(TOFEL research reports).Princeton,NJ:Educational Testing Service.http://www.ets.org/Media/Researcn/pdf/RR-98-08.pdf
114 ETS, Pearson, & College Board, Automated Scoring for the Assessment of Common Core Standards [EB/OL]. http://www.PearsonAssessments.com/AutomatedScoring.2011-9-26.
115 Pearson. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-41BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/St rategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeItemsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf.2011-10-2
116 Pearson. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-41BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/St rategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeItemsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf.2011-10-2
117 Pearson. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-41BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/St rategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeItemsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf.2011-10-2
118 Pearson. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-41BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/St rategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeItemsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf.2011-10-2
119Robert P. Dolan, Joshua Goodman,Ellen Strain-Seymour,Jeremy Adams, Sheela Sethuraman,Cognitive Lab Evaluation of Innovative Items in Mathematics and English Language Arts Assessment of E1ementary,Middle, and High School Students, [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/hai/images/tmrs/Cognitive_Lab_Evaluation_of_Innovative_Items.p df.2011-7-5.
120 Sireci, S.G (1998). Gathering and analyzing content validity data. Educational Assessment, 5(4),301.
121 Sireci, S.G (1998). Gathering and analyzing content validity data. Educational Assessment,5(4),302.
122注：此部分内容已先行发表在《现代教育论丛》2011第3期,测验开发中的公平性审核探微——以美国ETS为例。
123本文中的测验指的是大规模教育考试。
124 Educational Testing Service(ETS),ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness,[EB/OL].http://www.ets.org/Media/About ETS/pdf/standards.pdf.2010-12-9.
125美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译.教育与心理测试标准[M].阳沈阳出版社,2003：128.
126 Michael Zieky,Fairness Reviews in Assessment, Handbook of Test Developmet, Newjersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,2006:359-363.
127谢小庆,对考试公平的一些思考[EB/OL].http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog 4cce637301007z9i.html.2010-12-28.
128 Cleary,T.A,Test bias:Prediction of grades of Negro and White Students in Integrated Colleges,Joumal of Educational Measurement[J].1968(5):115-124.
129K-12测验指的是应试者为K-12学生的测验。
130 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2012-3-10.
131 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2012-3-23.
132人民教育出版社,“神秘”的中考命题之旅,http://www.pep.com.cn/rjwk/czhx_1/d24q/wddp/201104/t20110407_1032261.htm
133人民教育出版社,“神秘”的中考命题之旅,http://www.pep.com.cn/rjwk/czhx_1/d24q/wddp/201104/t20110407_1032261.htm
134 John Austin and Peter F. Delaney, Protocol Analysis as a Tool for Behavior Analysis, The Analysis ofVerbal Behavior 1998(15):41-56.
135 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL].http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2012-2-10.
136余民宁,《教育测验与评量——成就测验与教学评量》[M].台北：心理出版社,2002：15.
137吉尔伯特·萨克斯,詹姆斯·W.牛顿著,王昌海等译,《教育与心理测量与评价原理》(第四版),南京：江苏教育出版社,2002：250.
138吉尔伯特·萨克斯,詹姆斯·W.牛顿著,王昌海等译,《教育与心理测量与评价原理》(第四版),南京：江苏教育出版社,2002:253.
139吉尔伯特·萨克斯,詹姆斯·w.牛顿著,王昌海等译, 《教育与心理测量与评估原理》(第四版),江苏教育出版社,2002：267-268
140余民宁,试题反应理论IRT及其应用,台北：心理出版社,2009：63.
141余民宁,试题反应理论IRT及其应用,台北：心理出版社,2009：66.
142余民宁,试题反应理论IRT及其应用,台北：心理出版社,2009：69.
143余民宁,试题反应理论IRT及其应用,台北：心理出版社,2009：69.
144上海市考试院,2010上海市初中毕业统一学业考试试题分析与评价[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：40-41.
145上海市考试院,2010上海市初中毕业统一学业考试试题分析与评价[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：41.
146上海市考试院,2010上海市初中毕业统一学业考试试题分析与评价[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：41.
147上海市考试院,2010上海市初中毕业统一学业考试试题分析与评价[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011：57-59.
148 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
149 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
150 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
151 California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/cahsee0910atr.pdf.2011-7-10.
152 CCSS
153其他主题是指不能归入上述各主题的主题。
154雷新勇,周群,从基于标准的基础教育改革的视角审视课程标准和学业水平考试,考试研究[J].2009(1),46-56
155特殊专题包括集合、逻辑、数学归纳法、线性规划、计算机网络、迭代与递推(或循环)、排列组合、模拟、分形体和分椎体(fractals)、其他特殊专题。
156 Morgan S. Polikoff, Andrew C. Porter & John Smithson, How Well Aligned are State Assessments of Student Achievement with State Content Standards? American Educational Research Journal August[J].2011(48): 965-995.
157雷新勇,周群,从基于标准的基础教育改革的视角审视课程标准和学业水平考试,考试研究,2009(1)：48.
158注：转换是指符号之间的转换；数字间的转换,测量单位之间的转换。
1.Gary D.Borich & Martin L.Tombari著,促进教师发展与学生成长的评价研究项目组译.中小学教育评价,(Educational Assessment for the Elementary and Middle School Classroom(2ed))[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2003
2.吉尔伯特·萨克斯,詹姆斯·W.牛顿著,王昌海等译,《教育与心理测量与评价》
3.雷新勇,大规模教育考试：命题与评价[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2006
4.雷新勇,《基于标准的教育考生——命题、标准设置和学业评价》[M].上海：上海科学技术出版社,2010
5.吕立杰,我国基础教育“新课程”设计为个案,国家课程设计过程研究[M]教育科学出版社[M]2008
6.L·W·安德森等编著,皮连生主译,《学习、教学和评估的分类学》(布鲁姆教育目标分类学修订版)[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2007
7.美国教育研究协会,美国心理学协会,全美教育测量学会,燕尾琴,谢小庆译,教育与心理测试标准[M].沈阳：沈阳出版社,2003
8.全美数学教师理事会著,蔡金法等译,美国学校数学教育的原则和标准[M].人民教育出版社,2004
9.上海市考试院,2010上海市初中毕业统一学业考试试题分析与评价[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011
10.王斌华,学生评价：夯实双基与培养能力[M].上海：上海教育出版社,2011
11.W·詹姆斯·波帕姆著,促进教师发展与学生成长的评价研究项目组译,促进教学的课堂评价[M].北京：中国轻工业出版,2003
12.吴清山等著,教育绩效责任研究[M].北京：九州出版社,2006
13.余民宁,教育测验与评量——成就测验与教学评量[M].台北：心理出版社,2002
14.余民宁,试题反应理论IRT及其应用[M].台北：心理出版社,2009
1. American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing[M], Washington, DC,1999
2. Cynthia G. Parshall, J. Christine Harmes, Tim Davey, and Peter J. Pashley, Innovative Items for Computerized Testing, Edited by W.J. van der Linden and C.A.W. Glas, Elements of Adaptive Testing, Statisties[M], for Social and Behavioral Sciences, DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-85461-811,_c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
3. Dennis Fulkerson, Pearson Paul Nichols, Expanding the Model of Item-Writing Expertise:Cognitive Processes and Requisite Knowledge Structures,Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association[C].New Orleans, Louisiana:2011.
4. Fitzpatrick, R.,& Morrison, E.J. Performance and Product Evaluation. In R. L. Thorndike & W. H. Angoff (Eds.), Educational Measurement (2nd edition.)[M]. 1971
5. Gale H.Roid,Thomas M.Haladyna,A Technology for Test-Item Writing[M] Orlando,Florida:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,Acadamic Press,1982
6. Howard Wainer,& Neil J. Dorans.Computer adaptive testing:A primer [M]. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.2000
7. Michael Zieky,Fairness Reviews in Assessment, Handbook of Test Developmet[M], Newjersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,2006
8. Sammuel Messick, Validy, Educational Measurement (2th edition)[M]. Edited by Robert L. Linn, New York:American Council on Education,1989
9. Stephen G.Sireci, & April L.Zenisky. Innovative Item Formats Computer-Based Testing:In Pursuit of Improved Construct Representation. Downing, S.M., Haladyna, T.M. (Eds.),Handbook of Test Development[M] New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.2006
10. Suzanne Lane, Clement A. Stone, performance assessment, Educational Measuremen (4th edition), Edited by Robert L. Brennan, American Council on Education,2006 Cynthia B. Schmeiser & Catherin J. Welch, Performance Assessment, Educational Measurement(4th Edition)[M].Edited by Robert L. Brennan. Michgan:Praeger Publishers,2006
11. Thomas M. Haladyna, Developing and Validating Multiple-Choice Test Items[M].New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1994
12. Webb, N. L. Alignment study in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies of state standards and assessments for four states. Washington[M], DC: CCSSO,2002
1.曹洪,“不让一个孩子掉队”法案之回顾与启示,《外国中小学教育》[J].2008(2).
2.孔凡哲,命题技术：中考改革亟待突破的瓶颈,教育测量与评价[J].2012(2)
3.孔企平,《全日制义务教育数学课程标准评析》全球教育展望[J].2006(9)徐登科、王定华,美国中小学的州级统考[J].基础教育参考,2003(7)
4.雷新勇,周群,从基于标准的基础教育改革的视角审视课程标准和学业水平考试,考试研究[J].2009(1)
5.迈克尔·罗德里格兹,安东尼·阿尔巴诺,托马斯·哈拉代拿(美),王丽华译,《面向测试开发者、研究者和教师的试题编写技术》[J].考试研究,2011(27)
6.谢圣英,沈文选透视数学表现性评价,数学教育学报[J].2006(2)
7.杨向东,课程标准的开发与基于标准的学业水平考试的设计：美国的经验与启示,考试研究[J].2010(1).
8.约瑟夫·M·瑞安(美),基于经典测量理论和项目反应理论的等值与连接——主要概念和基本术语,《考试研究》[J].2011(1)
9.占盛丽,文剑冰,朱小虎.全球化背景下PISA在美国基础教育质量评估体系中的贡献——基于美国PISA与NEAP的比较,《外国中小学教育》[J].2010(5)
10.赵守文,关于构建促进学生与教师共同发展的数学教学评价体系的思考(五)——中考命题人员的招聘、评价及考核是交给教师跨入中考命题工作的一把钥匙(上),黑龙江教育[J],2005(11)
11.周琴,杨登苗,为升学和就业做准备：美国“共同核心州立标准”述评,比较教育研究[J].2010(12)
1. Cleary,T.A,Test bias:Prediction of grades of Negro and White Students in Integrated Colleges,Journal of Educational Measurement[J].1968(5)
2. Haladyna, T.M., & Downing, S.M. (). A taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing rules. Applied Measurement in Education[J].1989(1).
3. Hoepfl, M.C. Developing and evaluating multiple-choice tests. Technology Teacher[J].1994(7)
4. John Austin and Peter F. Delaney, Protocol Analysis as a Tool for Behavior Analysis, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior[J] 1998(15)
5. Morgan S. Polikoff, Andrew C. Porter & John Smithson, How Well Aligned are State Assessments of Student Achievement with State Content Standards? American Educational Research Journal August[J].2011(48)
6. Shepard, L. A.,The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher,2000(7)
7. Sireci, S.G. Gathering and analyzing content validity data. Educational Assessment,1998(4)
8. S. Lane,The Conceptual Framework for the Development of Mathematics Performance Assessment, Educational Measurement:issues and Pratices,1993 (2)
9. Thomas M. Haladyna, Steven M. Downing, Michael C. Rodriguez, A Review of Multiple-Choice Item-Writing Guidelines for Classroom Assessment, Applied Measurement in Education,2002(3),
1.2012年北京中考数学考试说明,[EB/OL]. http://wenku.baidu.com/view/cb2ee43f580216fc700afdbl.html
2. California Department of Education, California High School Exit Examination Technical Report July 2009-May 2010 Administrations[EB/OL]. http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/hs/documents/c ahsee0910atr.pdf
3.大连市西岗区教育网,09年大连市中考数学双向细目表与试题,[EB/OL]. http://www.xgedu.cn/news/2010331/n568613274.html
4. Florida Department of Education, FCAT 2.0 MATHEMATICS Test Item Specifications Grades 6-8, [EB/OL]. http://fcat.fldoe.org/fcat2/pdf/FL10SpISG68MWTr3g.pdf
5.甘肃省中考命题、阅卷与试卷质量评价工作基本规范(试行),[EB/OL]. http://www.qyedu.net/manage/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=103 9
6.教育部,教育部关于印发义务教育语文等学科,课程标准(2011年版)的通知,[EB/OL].http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/ moe_711/201201/xxgk_129268.html
7.教育部就印发义务教育课程标准(2011)答记者问,[EB/OL]. http://www.edu.cn/ji_jiao_news_279/20120207/t20120207_737 882.shtml
8.教育部相关负责人解读：义务教育“新课标”新在哪[EB/OL]. http://www.edu.cn/xin_wen_dong_tai_890/20120208/t20120208_738037.shtml.
9.李小七,为你揭秘黄冈中考命题全过程[EB/OL],http://www.hgdaily.com/Html/dpsp/20091228123.html
10.人民教育出版社,“神秘”的中考命题之旅,http://www.pep.com.cn/rjwk/czhx_1/d24q/wddp/201104/t20110407_1032 261.htm
11.孙俊,中考命题工作交流材料,[EB/OL]. http://wenku.baidu.com/view/5a4afb6fb84ae45c3b358c5b.html
12.谢小庆,对考试公平的一些思考
13. [EB/OL]. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4cce637301007z9i.html
1. Content Specifications for the Summative assessment of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, Review Draft Available for Consortium and Stakeholder Review and Feedback, December 9,2011 [EB/OL] http://www.kl2.wa.us/SMARTER/ContentSpecs/MathContentSpecifications.pdf.
2. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/hai/images/tmrs/Cognitive_Lab_E valuation_of_Innovative_Items.pdf
3. Educational Testing Service(ETS),ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness, [EB/OL].http://www.ets.org/Media/About_ETS/pdf/standards.pdf
4. ETS. Come Together to Raise Achievement, New Assessment for the Common Core State Standards[EB/OL].www.kl2center.org/rsc/pdf/Assessments_for_the_Common_C ore_Standards.pdf
5. ETS, Pearson, & College Board, Automated Scoring for the Assessment of Common Core Standards [EB/OL]. http://www.PearsonAssessments.com/AutomatedScoring
6. ETS, Pearson, & College Board. Some Considerations Related to the Use of Adaptive Testing for the Common Core Assessments[EB/OL]. http://www.google.com/url?q=http://professionals.collegeboard.com/profdownloa d/some-considerations-use-of-adaptive-testing.pdf&sa=U&ei=6hRvT8P_A4SSiA fFxJySBg&ved=OCBEQFj AA&usg=AFOjCNGmOikkVkku1sBTAdIYDdtxza41 WQ
7. ETS, Transforming K-12 Assessment:Integrating Accountability Testing, Formative Assessment,and Professional Support.[EB/OL]http://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.ets.org/Media/Home/ pdf/CBAL_TransformingK12Assessment.pdf&sa=U&ei=HBRvT9SwBOKiiAfz8 uiCBg&ved=0CBIQFjAA&usg=AFQjCNH_adeTdOVNlck0QdWyMjZrF9EglA
8. http://www.ctmirror.org/sites/default/files/documents/SOSSandCC2010_FullRep ortUpdated.pdf
9. Karin Hess, Valerie Kurizaki & Linda Holt, Reflections on tools and strategies used in the Hawai'I progress maps project:lessons learned from learning progressions [EB/OL].http://www.nciea.org/publications/Hawaii%20Lessons%20LearnedK H09.pdf
10. Marianne Perie, Scott Marion, Brian Gong, The role of interim assessment in a Comprehensive Assessment System:A Policy Brief[EB/OL]. http://www.achieve.org/files/TheRoleofInterim%20Assessments12-13-07.pdf
11. Pearson Assessment. Strategies and Processes for Developing Innovative Items in Large-Scale Assessments. [EB/OL].http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/7CDF60A7-782E-4 1BF-897D-72CEA94B3ADF/0/StrategiesandProcessesforDevelopingInnovativeIt emsinLargeScaleAssessments.pdf
12. Robert P. Dolan, Joshua Goodman, Ellen Strain-Seymour, Jeremy Adams, Sheela Sethuraman, Cognitive Lab Evaluation of Innovative Items in Mathematics and English Language Arts Assessment of Elementary, Middle, and High School Students,
13. SBAC, SBAC Performance Task Specifications[EB/OL]. http://www.smarterbalanced.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/DRAFT MathItemSpecsShowcase2.pdf
14. Sheila Byrd Carmichael, Gabrielle Martino, Kathleen Porter-Magee, & W. Stephen Wilson.The State of the State Standards and the Common Core in 2010 [EB/OL].
15. Taylor,C., Jamieson,J., Eignor,D., & Kirsch,I. The Relationship between Computer Familiarity and Performance on Computer-based TOEFL test tasks.(TOFEL research reports).Princeton,NJ:Educational Testing Service. http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-98-08.pdf
16. The state of the state standards— and the common core in 2010[EB/OL].http://www.edexcellencemedia.net/publications/2010/201007_state_education_standards_common_standards/PressRelease.pdf
17. Understanding the K-12 Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects[EB/OL].http://www.achieve.org/files/AchievingCCSS-ELAFINAL.pdf
18. U.S. Department of Education. Race to the Top Program Executive Summary [EB/OL].http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf.
1.李欣,《中美高中学业水平考试的多维比较研究》[D].华东师范大学博士学位论文,2011
2.马海琳,中考数学命题改革及其对教学的影响[D]。东北师范大学硕士学位论文
3.王井影,中考与高考中的数学开放题研究[D].东北师范大学硕士论文,2010