中国自然保护区的保护成本及其区域分布
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摘要
自然保护区的有效管理需要充分的资金保障。为了探究中国自然保护区的资金需求状况,构建自然保护区保护成本体系,系统估算和分析全国自然保护区的管理成本和机会成本。结果显示:(1)以2014年数据估算,全国自然保护区的保护成本为5049亿元,占当年全国GDP的0.78%,远低于环境损害成本和自然保护区生态系统的产品和服务所带来的经济价值,自然保护具有经济的合理性;(2)全国自然保护区管理成本约为85.91亿元,意味着为了达到最基本的管理标准,每年所需的管理资金量,但实际的总体投入远低于管理资金需求,保护区的总体资金缺口较大,且资金配置不均衡,地方级保护区需加强经费保障;(3)管理成本呈现明显的地域差异,西部和东北地区的保护区生态价值高、管理资金需求较大,而经济相对落后,地方财政压力较大,中央财政应适当倾斜;(4)全国自然保护区每年的机会成本达到4963亿元,反映出保护区建设带给地方的巨大经济压力,但目前中国自然保护区生态补偿缺口较大,政府亟需完善面向自然保护区的生态补偿机制。
In-situ conservation is an important measure to protect biodiversity. By the end of2017, China had established 2750 nature reserves, accounting for 14.9% of China's land area,which exceeds the world average. However, management failure is still serious. The effective management of nature reserves requires adequate funding. Based on a thorough study of the cost estimation methods for nature reserves and relevant management standards, this paper develops a conservation cost model of nature reserves, and estimates the management cost and opportunity cost of nature reserves in China. The results show that:(1) The conservation cost of all nature reserves in China is 504.9 billion yuan in 2014, accounting for 0.78% of the national GDP of the year, far lower than the cost of environmental damage and the economic value of the products and services of the nature reserve ecosystem, so the nature reserve system is economically justified.(2) In order to meet the management standards, the nature reserves in China require approximately 8.59 billion yuan annually. But the actual total investment is much lower than the fund request, reflecting overall funding gaps, and the inequality of fund allocation among nature reserves.(3) The management costs show obvious geographical differences. The nature reserves in the western and northeastern regions have high ecological value and large demand for management funds, while the economy is relatively undeveloped and the local financial pressure is relatively high. The national government should give more support to the nature reserves in the western and northeastern regions.(4) The annual opportunity cost of nature reserves in China is approximately 496.3 billion yuan, reflecting the huge economic pressure on the local society. However, the ecological compensation for nature reserves is in short supply. Governments need to improve ecological compensation mechanism for nature reserves to solve the dilemma between nature conservation and the development of surrounding communities.
In-situ conservation is an important measure to protect biodiversity. By the end of2017, China had established 2750 nature reserves, accounting for 14.9% of China's land area,which exceeds the world average. However, management failure is still serious. The effective management of nature reserves requires adequate funding. Based on a thorough study of the cost estimation methods for nature reserves and relevant management standards, this paper develops a conservation cost model of nature reserves, and estimates the management cost and opportunity cost of nature reserves in China. The results show that:(1) The conservation cost of all nature reserves in China is 504.9 billion yuan in 2014, accounting for 0.78% of the national GDP of the year, far lower than the cost of environmental damage and the economic value of the products and services of the nature reserve ecosystem, so the nature reserve system is economically justified.(2) In order to meet the management standards, the nature reserves in China require approximately 8.59 billion yuan annually. But the actual total investment is much lower than the fund request, reflecting overall funding gaps, and the inequality of fund allocation among nature reserves.(3) The management costs show obvious geographical differences. The nature reserves in the western and northeastern regions have high ecological value and large demand for management funds, while the economy is relatively undeveloped and the local financial pressure is relatively high. The national government should give more support to the nature reserves in the western and northeastern regions.(4) The annual opportunity cost of nature reserves in China is approximately 496.3 billion yuan, reflecting the huge economic pressure on the local society. However, the ecological compensation for nature reserves is in short supply. Governments need to improve ecological compensation mechanism for nature reserves to solve the dilemma between nature conservation and the development of surrounding communities.
引文
[1]吴健,刘昊.中国自然保护区空间分布的经济分析.自然资源学报,2012,27(12):2091-2101.[WU J,LIU H.Economic analysis on the spatial distribution of nature reserves in China.Journal of Natural Resources,2012,27(12):2091-2101.]
[2]李霞,杜世勋,桑满杰,等.山西省自然保护区生态系统格局及稳定性变化趋势研究.自然资源学报,2018,33(2):208-218.[LI X,DU S X,SANG M J,et al.Study on the change trend of ecosystem pattern and stability of nature reserves in Shanxi province.Journal of Natural Resources,2018,33(2):208-218.]
[3]吴静.国家公园体制改革的国际镜鉴与现实操作.改革,2017,(11):70-78.[WU J.International reference and practical operation of the reform of national park system.Reform,2017,(11):70-78.]
[4]王秋凤,于贵瑞,何洪林,等.中国自然保护区体系和综合管理体系建设的思考.资源科学,2015,37(7):1357-1366.[WANG Q F,YU G R,HE H L,et al.Thinking of construction of the nature reserve system and integrated management system in China.Resources Science,2015,37(7):1357-1366.]
[5]龚亚珍,韩炜,Bennett M,等.基于选择实验法的湿地保护区生态补偿政策研究.自然资源学报,2016,31(2):241-251.[GONG Y Z,HAN W,BENNETT M,et al.Study on eco-compensation policy design for wetland:A choice experiment approach.Journal of Natural Resources,2016,31(2):241-251.]
[6]王昌海.中国自然保护区给予周边社区了什么?:基于1998-2014年陕西、四川和甘肃三省农户调查数据.管理世界,2017,(3):63-75.[WANG C H.What has China's nature reserves given to surrounding communities?:Based on survey data of farmers in Shaanxi,Sichuan and Gansu provinces from 1998 to 2014.Management World,2017,(3):63-75.]
[7]NAIDOO R,BALMFORD A,FERRARO P J,et al.Integrating economic costs into conservation planning.Trends in Ecology and Evolution,2006,21(12):681-687.
[8]GREEN J M H,BURGESS N D,GREEN R E,et al.Estimating management costs of protected areas:A novel approach from the Eastern Arc Mountains,Tanzania.Biological Conservation,2012,150:5-14.
[9]ANDO A,CAMM J,POLASKY S,et al.Species distributions,land values,and efficient conservation.Science,1998,279(5359):2126-2128.
[10]BRUNER A G,GULLISON R E,BALMFORD A.Financial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding protectedarea systems in developing countries.Bioscience,2004,54(12):1119-1126.
[11]JAMES A,GASTON K J,BALMFORD A.Can we afford to conserve biodiversity?.Bioscience,2001,51(1):43-52.
[12]BALMFORD A,GRAVESTOCK P,HOCKLEY N,et al.The worldwide costs of marine protected areas.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2004,101(26):9694-9697.
[13]FRAZEE S R,COWLING R M,PRESSEY R L,et al.Estimating the costs of conserving a biodiversity hotspot:A casestudy of the Cape Floristic region,South Africa.Biological Conservation,2003,112:275-290.
[14]NORTON-GRIFFITHS M,SOUTHEY C.The opportunity costs of biodiversity conservation in Kenya.Ecological Economics,1995,12(2):125-139.
[15]王昌海,温亚利,李强,等.秦岭自然保护区群保护成本计量研究.中国人口·资源与环境,2012,22(3):130-136.[WANG C H,WEN Y L,LI Q,et al.Measurement of conservation costs in Qinling nature reserve group.China Population,Resources and Environment,2012,22(3):130-136.]
[16]顾蓉,高军,张松贺,等.滨海湿地类自然保护区的成本效益研究:以江苏盐城湿地珍禽国家级自然保护区为例.生态与农村环境学报,2014,30(1):32-37.[GU R,GAO J,ZHANG S H,et al.Costs and benefits of coastal wetland nature reserves:A case study of Yancheng National Nature Reserve.Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment,2014,30(1):32-37.]
[17]ARMSWORTH P R,CANTú-SALAZAR L,PARNELL M,et al.Management costs for small protected areas and economies of scale in habitat conservation.Biological Conservation,2011,144:423-429.
[18]蒋志刚.论中国自然保护区的面积上限.生态学报,2005,25(5):1205-1212.[JIANG Z G.On the upper limit of the area of the strictly protected nature reserves in China.Acta Ecologica Sinica,2005,25(5):1205-1212.]
[19]赵广华,田瑜,唐志尧,等.中国国家级陆地自然保护区分布及其与人类活动和自然环境的关系.生物多样性,2013,21(6):658-665.[ZHAO G H,TIAN Y,TANG Z Y,et al.Distribution of terrestrial national nature reserves in relation to human activities and natural environments in China.Biodiversity Science,2013,21(6):658-665.]
[20]解焱.自然保护地保护管理人员与经费需求分析.https://wenku.baidu.com/view/cad61971852458fb770b5647.html?re=view,2013-1-25.[XIE Y.The demand of managers and funding of protected areas in China.https://wenku.baidu.com/view/cad61971852458fb770b5647.html?re=view,2013-1-25.]
[21]SINDEN J A.Estimating the opportunity costs of biodiversity protection in the Brigalow Belt,New South Wales.Journal of Environmental Management,2004,70(4):351-362.
[22]ADAMS V M,PRESSEY R L,NAIDOO R.Opportunity costs:Who really pays for conservation?.Biological Conservation,2010,143:439-448.
[23]JUNIPER T.What's really happening to our planet?.London:Dorling Kindersley,2016.
[24]梅凤乔,张爽.中国自然保护区资金机制探讨.环境保护,2006,(2):48-51.[MEI F Q,ZHANG S.Financing mechanism of protected areas in China.Environmental Protection,2006,(2):48-51.]
[25]MILLER-RUSHING A J,PRIMACK R B,MA K,et al.A Chinese approach to protected areas:A case study comparison with the United States.Biological Conservation,2017,210:101-112.
[26]钱者东,郭辰,吴儒华,等.中国自然保护区经济投入特征与问题分析.生态与农村环境学报,2016,32(1):35-40.[QIAN Z D,GUO C,WU R H,et al.Characteristics of and problems in economic investment in nature reserves of China.Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment,2016,32(1):35-40.]
[27]王晓霞,吴健.中国自然保护区财政资金投入水平分析.环境保护,2017,(11):53-57.[WANG X X,WU J.The level of financial input in nature reserves of China.Environmental Protection,2017,(11):53-57.]
[28]刘菊,傅斌,王玉宽,等.关于生态补偿中保护成本的研究.中国人口·资源与环境,2015,25(3):43-49.[LIU J,FU B,WANG Y K,et al.Study on protection cost of payment for ecosystem service.China Population,Resources and Environment,2015,25(3):43-49.]
[29]代明,刘燕妮,陈罗俊.基于主体功能区划和机会成本的生态补偿标准分析.自然资源学报,2013,28(8):1310-1317.[DAI M,LIU Y N,CHEN L J.The study on quantitative standard of eco-compensation under major function-oriented zone planning and opportunity cost.Journal of Natural Resources,2013,28(8):1310-1317.]
[30]ENGEL S,PAGIOLA S,WUNDER S.Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice:An overview of the issues.Ecological Economics,2008,65(4):663-674.
[31]MU?OZ-PI?A C,GUEVARA A,TORRES J M,et al.Paying for the hydrological services of Mexico's forests:Analysis,negotiations and results.Ecological Economics,2008,65(4):725-736.
[32]PAGIOLA S,RAMíREZ E,GOBBI J,et al.Paying for the environmental services of silvopastoral practices in Nicaragua.Ecological Economics,2007,64(2):374-385.
[33]侯鹏,杨旻,翟俊,等.论自然保护地与国家生态安全格局构建.地理研究,2017,36(3):420-428.[HOU P,YANG M,ZHAI J,et al.Discussion about natural reserve and construction of national ecological security pattern.Geographical Research,2017,36(3):420-428.]
[34]李国平,李潇.国家重点生态功能区的生态补偿标准、支付额度与调整目标.西安交通大学学报:社会科学版,2017,37(2):1-9.[LI G P,LI X.Ecological compensation standard,payment amount and adjustment target in national key ecological function areas.Journal of Xi'an Jiaotong University:Social Sciences,2017,37(2):1-9.]
(1)保护区土地可能有多种用途选择,有些用途(比如旅游开发)的净收益高于农林牧渔业。理论上,哪一项替代用途的净收益水平最高,应该选取该项用途的净收益作为机会成本。但旅游不是一个常规产业,对于此类机会项目的收益估算,缺乏相应数据支撑。因此本文参考文献[15]与文献[22]的做法,选取保护区所在地的农林牧渔业的净利润来衡量机会成本。
(2)海洋渔业单位面积产值估算方法:考虑到绝大多数渔民以从事近海捕捞为主,本文将海洋捕捞视为近海捕捞。具体地,国家海洋局界定了近海海域,指近岸海域外部界限平行向外20海里的海域,在此基础上,笔者从各沿海省份统计年鉴中获得各省大陆海岸线长度,两者相乘得到各沿海省份的海洋渔业面积(海水养殖也在该范围之内)。这样,各沿海省份海洋渔业单位面积产值≈(海水养殖产值+海洋捕捞产值)/海洋渔业面积。
(3)由于《中国农业年鉴》自2012年以后就缺失各地区农村经济收益分配一项,因此利用2006-2011年《中国农业年鉴》,获得各省份2005-2010年农业平均利润率,作为本文的计算依据。
(4)据国际保护监测中心(WCMC)于1993年和1995年两次对108个国家的公园和保护区调查统计的结果,平均得到的经费投入(包括运行费和基建费)为893US$/km2,发达国家平均为2058 US$/km2,发展中国家平均为157 US$/km2。本文为方便比较,按GDP平减指数和美元对人民币汇率计算得到2014年相应数据。
(5)按照《导则》和《标准》要求,本文测算的国家级和省级保护区管理成本合计为57.86亿元,为了同口径比较,剔除其中的基础设施、设备费用13.74亿元,得到基本的管理运行费用44.12亿元。
[2]李霞,杜世勋,桑满杰,等.山西省自然保护区生态系统格局及稳定性变化趋势研究.自然资源学报,2018,33(2):208-218.[LI X,DU S X,SANG M J,et al.Study on the change trend of ecosystem pattern and stability of nature reserves in Shanxi province.Journal of Natural Resources,2018,33(2):208-218.]
[3]吴静.国家公园体制改革的国际镜鉴与现实操作.改革,2017,(11):70-78.[WU J.International reference and practical operation of the reform of national park system.Reform,2017,(11):70-78.]
[4]王秋凤,于贵瑞,何洪林,等.中国自然保护区体系和综合管理体系建设的思考.资源科学,2015,37(7):1357-1366.[WANG Q F,YU G R,HE H L,et al.Thinking of construction of the nature reserve system and integrated management system in China.Resources Science,2015,37(7):1357-1366.]
[5]龚亚珍,韩炜,Bennett M,等.基于选择实验法的湿地保护区生态补偿政策研究.自然资源学报,2016,31(2):241-251.[GONG Y Z,HAN W,BENNETT M,et al.Study on eco-compensation policy design for wetland:A choice experiment approach.Journal of Natural Resources,2016,31(2):241-251.]
[6]王昌海.中国自然保护区给予周边社区了什么?:基于1998-2014年陕西、四川和甘肃三省农户调查数据.管理世界,2017,(3):63-75.[WANG C H.What has China's nature reserves given to surrounding communities?:Based on survey data of farmers in Shaanxi,Sichuan and Gansu provinces from 1998 to 2014.Management World,2017,(3):63-75.]
[7]NAIDOO R,BALMFORD A,FERRARO P J,et al.Integrating economic costs into conservation planning.Trends in Ecology and Evolution,2006,21(12):681-687.
[8]GREEN J M H,BURGESS N D,GREEN R E,et al.Estimating management costs of protected areas:A novel approach from the Eastern Arc Mountains,Tanzania.Biological Conservation,2012,150:5-14.
[9]ANDO A,CAMM J,POLASKY S,et al.Species distributions,land values,and efficient conservation.Science,1998,279(5359):2126-2128.
[10]BRUNER A G,GULLISON R E,BALMFORD A.Financial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding protectedarea systems in developing countries.Bioscience,2004,54(12):1119-1126.
[11]JAMES A,GASTON K J,BALMFORD A.Can we afford to conserve biodiversity?.Bioscience,2001,51(1):43-52.
[12]BALMFORD A,GRAVESTOCK P,HOCKLEY N,et al.The worldwide costs of marine protected areas.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2004,101(26):9694-9697.
[13]FRAZEE S R,COWLING R M,PRESSEY R L,et al.Estimating the costs of conserving a biodiversity hotspot:A casestudy of the Cape Floristic region,South Africa.Biological Conservation,2003,112:275-290.
[14]NORTON-GRIFFITHS M,SOUTHEY C.The opportunity costs of biodiversity conservation in Kenya.Ecological Economics,1995,12(2):125-139.
[15]王昌海,温亚利,李强,等.秦岭自然保护区群保护成本计量研究.中国人口·资源与环境,2012,22(3):130-136.[WANG C H,WEN Y L,LI Q,et al.Measurement of conservation costs in Qinling nature reserve group.China Population,Resources and Environment,2012,22(3):130-136.]
[16]顾蓉,高军,张松贺,等.滨海湿地类自然保护区的成本效益研究:以江苏盐城湿地珍禽国家级自然保护区为例.生态与农村环境学报,2014,30(1):32-37.[GU R,GAO J,ZHANG S H,et al.Costs and benefits of coastal wetland nature reserves:A case study of Yancheng National Nature Reserve.Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment,2014,30(1):32-37.]
[17]ARMSWORTH P R,CANTú-SALAZAR L,PARNELL M,et al.Management costs for small protected areas and economies of scale in habitat conservation.Biological Conservation,2011,144:423-429.
[18]蒋志刚.论中国自然保护区的面积上限.生态学报,2005,25(5):1205-1212.[JIANG Z G.On the upper limit of the area of the strictly protected nature reserves in China.Acta Ecologica Sinica,2005,25(5):1205-1212.]
[19]赵广华,田瑜,唐志尧,等.中国国家级陆地自然保护区分布及其与人类活动和自然环境的关系.生物多样性,2013,21(6):658-665.[ZHAO G H,TIAN Y,TANG Z Y,et al.Distribution of terrestrial national nature reserves in relation to human activities and natural environments in China.Biodiversity Science,2013,21(6):658-665.]
[20]解焱.自然保护地保护管理人员与经费需求分析.https://wenku.baidu.com/view/cad61971852458fb770b5647.html?re=view,2013-1-25.[XIE Y.The demand of managers and funding of protected areas in China.https://wenku.baidu.com/view/cad61971852458fb770b5647.html?re=view,2013-1-25.]
[21]SINDEN J A.Estimating the opportunity costs of biodiversity protection in the Brigalow Belt,New South Wales.Journal of Environmental Management,2004,70(4):351-362.
[22]ADAMS V M,PRESSEY R L,NAIDOO R.Opportunity costs:Who really pays for conservation?.Biological Conservation,2010,143:439-448.
[23]JUNIPER T.What's really happening to our planet?.London:Dorling Kindersley,2016.
[24]梅凤乔,张爽.中国自然保护区资金机制探讨.环境保护,2006,(2):48-51.[MEI F Q,ZHANG S.Financing mechanism of protected areas in China.Environmental Protection,2006,(2):48-51.]
[25]MILLER-RUSHING A J,PRIMACK R B,MA K,et al.A Chinese approach to protected areas:A case study comparison with the United States.Biological Conservation,2017,210:101-112.
[26]钱者东,郭辰,吴儒华,等.中国自然保护区经济投入特征与问题分析.生态与农村环境学报,2016,32(1):35-40.[QIAN Z D,GUO C,WU R H,et al.Characteristics of and problems in economic investment in nature reserves of China.Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment,2016,32(1):35-40.]
[27]王晓霞,吴健.中国自然保护区财政资金投入水平分析.环境保护,2017,(11):53-57.[WANG X X,WU J.The level of financial input in nature reserves of China.Environmental Protection,2017,(11):53-57.]
[28]刘菊,傅斌,王玉宽,等.关于生态补偿中保护成本的研究.中国人口·资源与环境,2015,25(3):43-49.[LIU J,FU B,WANG Y K,et al.Study on protection cost of payment for ecosystem service.China Population,Resources and Environment,2015,25(3):43-49.]
[29]代明,刘燕妮,陈罗俊.基于主体功能区划和机会成本的生态补偿标准分析.自然资源学报,2013,28(8):1310-1317.[DAI M,LIU Y N,CHEN L J.The study on quantitative standard of eco-compensation under major function-oriented zone planning and opportunity cost.Journal of Natural Resources,2013,28(8):1310-1317.]
[30]ENGEL S,PAGIOLA S,WUNDER S.Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice:An overview of the issues.Ecological Economics,2008,65(4):663-674.
[31]MU?OZ-PI?A C,GUEVARA A,TORRES J M,et al.Paying for the hydrological services of Mexico's forests:Analysis,negotiations and results.Ecological Economics,2008,65(4):725-736.
[32]PAGIOLA S,RAMíREZ E,GOBBI J,et al.Paying for the environmental services of silvopastoral practices in Nicaragua.Ecological Economics,2007,64(2):374-385.
[33]侯鹏,杨旻,翟俊,等.论自然保护地与国家生态安全格局构建.地理研究,2017,36(3):420-428.[HOU P,YANG M,ZHAI J,et al.Discussion about natural reserve and construction of national ecological security pattern.Geographical Research,2017,36(3):420-428.]
[34]李国平,李潇.国家重点生态功能区的生态补偿标准、支付额度与调整目标.西安交通大学学报:社会科学版,2017,37(2):1-9.[LI G P,LI X.Ecological compensation standard,payment amount and adjustment target in national key ecological function areas.Journal of Xi'an Jiaotong University:Social Sciences,2017,37(2):1-9.]
(1)保护区土地可能有多种用途选择,有些用途(比如旅游开发)的净收益高于农林牧渔业。理论上,哪一项替代用途的净收益水平最高,应该选取该项用途的净收益作为机会成本。但旅游不是一个常规产业,对于此类机会项目的收益估算,缺乏相应数据支撑。因此本文参考文献[15]与文献[22]的做法,选取保护区所在地的农林牧渔业的净利润来衡量机会成本。
(2)海洋渔业单位面积产值估算方法:考虑到绝大多数渔民以从事近海捕捞为主,本文将海洋捕捞视为近海捕捞。具体地,国家海洋局界定了近海海域,指近岸海域外部界限平行向外20海里的海域,在此基础上,笔者从各沿海省份统计年鉴中获得各省大陆海岸线长度,两者相乘得到各沿海省份的海洋渔业面积(海水养殖也在该范围之内)。这样,各沿海省份海洋渔业单位面积产值≈(海水养殖产值+海洋捕捞产值)/海洋渔业面积。
(3)由于《中国农业年鉴》自2012年以后就缺失各地区农村经济收益分配一项,因此利用2006-2011年《中国农业年鉴》,获得各省份2005-2010年农业平均利润率,作为本文的计算依据。
(4)据国际保护监测中心(WCMC)于1993年和1995年两次对108个国家的公园和保护区调查统计的结果,平均得到的经费投入(包括运行费和基建费)为893US$/km2,发达国家平均为2058 US$/km2,发展中国家平均为157 US$/km2。本文为方便比较,按GDP平减指数和美元对人民币汇率计算得到2014年相应数据。
(5)按照《导则》和《标准》要求,本文测算的国家级和省级保护区管理成本合计为57.86亿元,为了同口径比较,剔除其中的基础设施、设备费用13.74亿元,得到基本的管理运行费用44.12亿元。
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